GARLIC PRODUCTION.

Garlic likes full or partial sun. Most garlic growers recommend full sun; however, our garlic gets partial sun and does great. In really hot climates garlic may do better with afternoon shade to help shield garlic from the full heat of the day. We get full morning sun in our field which starts to shade around mid-afternoon (2 p.m. or later depending on the time of year). Interestingly, the garlic does better on the side of field with less sun but better soil!Prepare soil before planting garlic:

For the largest bulbs, prep your garlic bed well. Garlic loves a rich fertile loam soil or a silty loam soil. Our garlic grows in a beautiful silty loam soil. WARNING: Do not plant garlic in poorly draining soil; garlic cloves can rot if they sit in water or mud part of the winter.

Add organic matter: What if you don’t have the perfect soil? If you have sandy or clay soil add compost, humus, manure, or other organic matter to your soil and till or dig it in thoroughly. You can use all sorts of organic matter, even hay or dried grass clippings (make sure they are not treated with herbicides). One good option is to dig in weeds as green manure as long as the weeds don’t have seeds (you don’t want to accidently plant a weed bed).

Use green cover crop: You can also use a green cover crop (also called green manure) which is tilled into the soil in the fall. There are many options for cover crops such as peas, oats, buckwheat, sorghum, clover and more. The key is to select one that is right for your climate and for when it needs to grow. There are options for spring, summer, and fall planting. If you decide to use a cover crop you must kill the cover crop before it sets seed; otherwise you will have a weed problem. You can mow, cut or till down cover crops to prevent seed formation.

Add nitrogen if needed: If you use hay, straw, wood chips or similar materials you may need to add a little extra nitrogen to the soil. Organic substances can temporarily tie up nitrogen as they decompose which may leave less nitrogen for the garlic. After the organic matter decomposes it releases the nitrogen back into the soil (so you get it back later). Once organic matter breaks down it is known as humus. Humus helps soil maintain structure, improves nutrient uptake and retention, feeds nitrogen fixing bacteria, increases soil aeration, improves water holding capacity and helps prevent erosion.

How organic matter works: The organic matter will improve every soil type. Organic matter breaks up clay soils and allow better water penetration. It increases soil aggregate stability which holds soil particles together and helps soils retain their structure. Organic matter will help sandy soils retain moisture by increasing humus concentration and retain nutrients by improving cation exchange capacity. It also increases mineralization which is how much nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, phosphorus and other nutrients are released by soil bacteria. Organic matter makes compacted soils ‘fluffier’ and adds nutrients to poor soils.

In addition, garlic is a heavy feeder which means it likes lots of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Adding organic matter for your crop to enjoy will give you the biggest and best tasting garlic. It will also supply most of the nutrients you need to grow great garlic.

Fluff soil: Don’t forget to fluff your soil! Garlic is a root crop so soil should be soft and fluffy on the top 12-18 inches. You should be able to easily push your hand into the soil. It is extremely important to have well draining soil. Garlic cloves can rot in the ground if planted in a poor draining area.

One study found that no till garlic had 32-44% bulb loss (Bratsch et al. 2005). Conventionally planted garlic has a very high success rate. We expect to get much less than a 5% bulb loss in our market varieties (we call them our production varieties).

Consider getting a soil test in your garlic plot:

After you amend and prepare your soil take the time to get a soil test. Soil tests will measure what nutrients are already in your soil when you plant. That way you can add fertilizer in the spring if you need to do so to grow healthy bulbs.

Prepare garlic bulbs:

Carefully separate each garlic bulb into individual cloves. Each clove will grow a new bulb of garlic. Be careful not to bruise the garlic with rough handling. Cuts and bruises could provide entry points for rot during the winter.

Plant garlic cloves:

Plant the garlic clove 4-6 inches deep. In areas with colder winters you should plant the garlic at least 5-6 inches deep and 4-8 inches apart. We space garlic 6 inches apart in rows, with rows 8 inches apart. You can make individual holes using a blunt handle (such as the end of a rake or shovel) or a bulb planter. You can also dig a trench 4-6 inches deep; lay in the garlic cloves and cover.

VERY IMPORTANT Garlic planting tip: make sure to plant the garlic right side up. The pointed end is the top side. This should be planted up. Garlic planted the wrong way will not grow as big or nice of a bulb. This is why all our garlic at Grey Duck Garlic is hand planted.

Mulch the garlic bed with compost, wood chips or hay. Mulching increases soil quality and nutrient availability for crops . Straw mulch increased yield and marketability in no-till garlic (Bretsch et al. 2005). Note: we don’t recommend no-till with garlic. Make sure that the hay is nice and fluffy or chopped up so that it lets some air through. You don’t want your garlic bed getting too wet or your garlic could rot.

Be careful of straw or hay mulches in wet climates or wet years. Heavy mulches may contribute to stem rot. In addition, straw from grain crops like wheat may carry stem rots that can transfer to garlic. If you notice signs of stem rot (browning or sliminess around the base of the plant), rake the mulch away from the garlic stalk. We have not noticed this problem with compost based mulches

We usually add nitrogen twice during the year to our garlic. We add blood meal directly after planting and side dress with blood meal either once or twice after garlic comes up in the spring. Do not add nitrogen after garlic begins to form a seedhead or scape. If it has too much nitrogen at that time it will grow leaves instead of a bulb! We do not need to add other fertilizers. Our soil is very high in other nutrients due to all the manure we add as an amendment.

You may need to add a complete fertilizer. One important nutrient is potassium which helps to grow large garlic bulbs. Add potassium to your soil if needed for growing those large garlic heads .

Ideally the garlic should start drying out in early summer. The bottom leaves will start to dry out and turn brown. Garlic is ready to harvest when only the top 4-5 green leaves are left. You don’t want to leave it in the soil too long or the bulb quality will start to deteriorate. Dig or gently pull your garlic (if the soil is soft it will be easier to pull up the bulbs). Do not remove the stems yet.

Garlic varieties normally mature in the following order (list is from earliest to latest maturing): Tuban,Asiatic, Artichoke, Rocambole, Creole, Glazed Purple Stripe, Purple Stripe, Marbled Purple Stripe, Porcelain, and Silverskin. However, smaller plants will normally mature earlier than larger plants. If you grow different varieties, you may have a difference of 3-4 weeks or more between the earliest and latest varieties.
A word on watering:

Hardneck garlic is ideally suited for dry climates; most garlic will do fine on 12-14 inches of rain during the growing season. Grey Duck Garlic grows dryland garlic which means we don’t water our garlic. However, you may want to water in the spring or early summer if it is really dry. Don’t keep the soil constantly moist or you risk garlic rot.

SUMMER

Garlic scapes:

Hardneck garlic forms scapes or “seedheads” in early summer. Scapes are composed of small bulblets which can grow more garlic. Scapes can be harvested to eat, left on the plant to mature or removed. Some people believe that removing the scapes makes the bulbs grow bigger. Studies show that if garlic is under any stress removing the scapes will result in bigger garlic bulbs.

If the soil is soft garlic can be pulled by hand. Warning: when the soil is harder, digging is required or the garlic may break off in the soil. Dig far enough away from the plant to avoid cutting your garlic bulbs. We know from sad experience that it is always the biggest bulbs that get nicked by the shovel (and nobody wants to see a grown garlic grower cry)!

Curing garlic bulbs:

Hardneck garlic cannot be braided to store; the stems are hard. Cure the garlic bulbs by storing in a cool dry area with good air movement for 4-6 weeks. Some people hang garlic, we dry it on racks. Bulbs can be eaten ‘raw’ but will have a more mellow flavor and will store longer after curing (the bulbs you receive from Grey Duck Garlic are already cured). Once the stems are dry you can clip off the bulb and store in a dry airy place. We enjoy using both the raw and the cured bulbs in cooking.

Garlic Bulb Storage:

Storage length of garlic depends on your storage conditions. For the longest storage time, place garlic in a cool (50-65ºF) dry area such as an unheated room. Do not store garlic in plastic or air tight containers or garlic will mold, rot or try to grow. Garlic will sprout if exposed to prolonged temperatures below 45ºF.

CHILLI FARMING GUIDELINES 🌶🌶🌶

Basically, Chillies are most important and worthwhile commercial crop that’s plays a vital role in the world economy since it is widely grown spice among all the spice crops. Usually, they are also known as “Chili Pepper” throughout the world. Generally, this crop is mostly grown to obtain the fruits to use them as a major ingredient of many kinds of curries, chutneys, and also as a culinary.

They are used as a spice, vegetables, sauces, condiments, fruits and in preparation for various pickles. Chillies are so popular that they are being used by everyone, all over the world. These are mostly eaten for their excellent spicy taste and flavored pungency. The active element “Capsaicin” one kind of alkaloid present is chillies is also extracted from them and is used as a medicinal ingredient.

Currently, commercial chilli farming is pretty successful and anyone can earn an excellent profit with instant income because there is always a great demand in the local and international market. Beside growing on the commercial open field, they can be also grown in poly houses, greenhouses, pots, containers, backyards, under shade nets, etc. However, the quality and quantity of yield are higher, if grown under controlled environmental conditions like growing in greenhouses. With advanced chilli farming technology, it is also possible to grow them successfully in the hydroponic system.

Scientific Name of Chilli.

There is two scientific name for chilli, there two are Capsicum Annuum L and Capsicum frutescens L. which belongs to the family “Solanaceae” and to the genus “Capsicum”.

HEALTH BENFITS OF CHILLI .

The following is the list of some of the health benefits of eating chili daily… learn it.

》Green chillies are an excellent source of many minerals and vitamins, especially of antioxidants so it can act as janitors in providing protection against damage from free radical and preventing many cancers.

》The Vitamin C content of green chillies is beneficial in strengthening immunity naturally to the diseases.

》The green chilli peppers are full of Vitamin E content which is an essential source in the production of certain kinds of natural skin oils.

》Chillies are supposed to be zero calories content food so it plays an important role in losing weight diet.
They also keep the prostate cancer away from the men.

》They are also helpful in reducing the high blood sugar level of the body.

》Green chillies are an excellent source of dietary fibres because of which are found to be beneficial in improving the working of the digestive system.

》They release endorphins significantly into the brain and works are mood refresher.

》Eating chillies are also found to be beneficial in reducing the chances of lung cancer.
They are also loaded with the anti-bacterial feature that means they help in keeping bacteria away from us.

》They are also an excellent source of natural Iron.

Chili Production in World | Major Producer

Chili is the largest spice amongst all the spice crop all over the world however when it comes to production, India tops the list of chilli production followed by China and Ethiopia.

Climate Requirement for Chilli Farming.

Basically, chilli can be grown throughout the whole world but it thrives it best in the tropical region and subtropical region. It requires humid and warm climate conditions having ideal temp ranging from 18 °C to 28°C along with adequate evenly distributed yearly rainfall. But take care that soils with low moisture content during the blossom grow and fruit set stage may result in dropping down of bud, blossom and newly formed fruits. Extreme rainfall during growing period is also harmful to this crop since it leads to rotting and defoliation of this chilli plants. However, an annual rainfall of about 20 to 25 inches yearly rainfall is essential for healthy plant growth and higher production.

Take care that a temp below 15 °C during the growing period may lead to lower crop yield.

SOIL REQUIREMENT FOR CHILLI FARMING .

They can be grown over a wide variety of soils however they thrive their best on sandy and loamy soils, clayey loamy soils under irrigation conditions.

Along with well-drained soil and deltaic soils. Whereas for rainfed conditions, black soils are best suitable since they can retain good moisture level for the long time period.

However, always preferred plantation of soils which are full of all essential organic matter content with the facility of good drainage and aeration.

For excellent plant growth, the ideal soil pH for growing chilli is 5.8 to 7.0. Never use acidic soils for cultivating this crop since are not suitable for higher production and quality yield.

☆Chilli Varieties.

Presently, there are many, many improved varieties of chilli are available in the market, and they often knew differently depending on the area. However, learn the list of some famous chilli varieties across the world.

=Bird’s Eye Chilli – Dhani
=Red Cayenne
=Yellow Cayenne
=Red Ball
=Green Ball
=Birdseye
=Jalapeno
=Habanero
There may be another variety of chilli which is popular in your region in accordance with the climate conditions and atmosphere.

》LAND PREPRATION IN CHILLI FARMING.

Chili farming can be done over a wide variety of soils however, sandy, loamy, clayey soils should be preferred to obtain higher yield with a facility of good drainage and proper aeration. Bring the cultivating soils in fine tilth form and in friable conditions to facilitate it with proper aeration and good drainage. Giving 3 deep ploughing followed by a couple of harrowing is sufficient enough to bring the soil in such conditions. Also carry out crushing of soil, if present. Leveling of soil is should be done with a tractor blade.

Make raised beds to drain out the rainwater and facilitate soil with good aeration. However, supplement all the essential organic matter at the time of land preparation. Adding about 20 tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare land is good enough to increase the soil fertility for chili cultivation. However, the manuring should be done for about 15 to 20 days before the sowing of seedlings. Make use of Heff at about 10 kg per hectare land to protect the newly planted seedling from pests and insects.

☆Propagation in Chilli Farming.

Chillies are mainly propagated with the help of quality seedlings raised on nursery beds from quality seeds. For raising seedling, select only those seeds which have a high tolerance to the pests, insects, and diseases to obtain higher yield. Always purchase them from a well known certified and organic farms. One can collect it from his/her organically raised own field.

If organic seeds are not available, one can start cultivation with chemically untreated chilli seeds obtained from local and high yielding variety.

☆Chilli Seed Treatment for Raising Seedlings.

The selected seeds should be treated well with any suitable chemical fungicides (pesticides) to obtain high quality of seedling and attain higher germination %. So, treat the selected seeds well with Pseudomonas sp. or Trichoderma at about 15 gm per each kg of quality seeds to prevent the occurrence of rot in nursery raised seedling.

The best time for raising seedling on nursery beds is from Feb to March so that seedling becomes ready for transplanting in April and May.

》 RAISING NUSERY SEEDLING .

Sow the fresh and certified chili seeds on previously prepared beds from Feb to March to make them ready for transplanting on the field in April since cultivation with planting seedling has better survival % and quality yield in comparison the broadcasting planting method.

Prepare the nursery bed thoroughly mixing with the compost and topmost soil. After sowing treated seed on beds, cover it with thin soil film.

How long do chilli seeds take to germinate? Usually, seedling appears in about 4 to 6 days after planting seeds on beds. These nurseries raised seedling should be planted on the main field when they become 45 to 50 days older.

☆Seed Rate in Chilli Farming.

For raising nursery seedling, about 500 gm of quality seeds are sufficient enough for starting cultivation on a hectare land.

☆Chilli Planting Season.

Planting should be done from May to June for producing chilli as Kharif crop whereas it should be done from Jan to Feb to cultivate it as a Rabi season crop.

☆ Chilli Planting Spacing.

Planting of 45 to 50 days older seedling should be done from April to May to meet the market demand. Planting of seedling should be done in shallow trenches and on ridge lands.

They can be planted with an appropriate planting distance such as 30 cm X 30 cm, 30 cm X 45 cm, and 60 cm x 60 cm.

☆Sowing Directly on Field in Chilli Farming.

For cultivating chilli under the rainfed condition, seeds should be sown directly on the field from the end of March to the first two weeks of April. For sowing seeds directly on the field, about 1.8 kg to 2 kg of quality seeds is required. Carry out thinning along with gap filling after about 4 to 5 weeks of sowing seeds.

》 IRRIGATION IN CHILLI FARMING .

Chilli plants do not have tolerance to high moisture that means water is given on the requirement basis. In commercial chilli cultivation, frequent water supply or heavy irrigation results in bony vegetative growth and flower shedding. And, the need of irrigation to plants always depends on climate conditions, soil type and atmosphere.

This crop requires a uniform moisture of soil throughout the complete growing period. But, have poor tolerance towards the drought conditions and flooding. Irrigating with drip irrigation method is best suitable for cultivation in a region with water scarcity problem. One can irrigate with furrow method with a facility of enough water.

Irrigate the crop, just after planting the seedling on the main field. Then after water should be given on the requirement basis. Try to irrigate crop at least once a week in the hot month whereas at an interval of 10 days in the cold month.

The dropping down of plants leaves in evening, generally at 4 PM to 5 PM indicate the need for water to the plants. Chili farming is usually practised under rainfed conditions with an annual rainfall of 120 inches, evenly distributed throughout the year. But, it is also possible to grow chilli with the facility of irrigations. But, care to be taken while growing.

Always avoid over watering. Since plant growth, branching along with dry matter growth are unfavorably affected by over-watering. But, care to be taken during critical stage such as flowering stage and fruit development stage. Avoid overhead irrigation since it invites numbers of diseases. Also, drain out the water due to heavy rains and flooding conditions to avail constant moisture.

Avoid excessive use of chemical fertilizers, liquid pesticides, and harmful fungicides. Also, avoid water stagnation problem on nursery beds and on fields to avoid an early occurrence of fungal infection.

☆ Application of Manure and Fertilizers in Chilli Farming.

Always try to cultivate chillies on such soils which are full of all essential organic matter. So, apply about 15 tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare land at the time of land preparation to increase soil fertility.

For growing chillies under rainfed conditions, apply 50 kg of Nitrogen, 25 kg of Phosphorous and 25 kg of Potash. Give the half dose of Nitrogen at the time of planting seedlings on the main field. Whereas the remaining half dose of Nitrogen should be given after about 4 to 5 weeks of planting seedling.

For growing chillies with the facility of irrigation, apply 100 kg of Nitrogen, 50 kg of Phosphorous and 50 kg of Potassium per growing hectare. Manuring should be done in four equal splits. The 1st one at the time of planting seedling. And, the 2nd one at 4th week of planting seeds. The 3rd and 4th one should be given at 10th and 12th week of planting seedling to obtain higher yield.

Pests and Diseases in Chilli Farming

Chillies are very prone to pests and diseases. And the presence of any pests, insect, and diseases in any crop leads to reduce the production to a big extent. So, learn the list of common pests and diseases in chilli cultivation along with their symptoms and control measures.

》CHILLI PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL .

Learn the list of common pests and insect, observed in chilli production along with their symptoms and control measures.

Pests Symptoms Cause Prevention
Aphids Small & succulent, pear-shaped insects. Mostly attack in cold months & influence widely to the crop. Aphids lower down the pods quality and growth. Spray dimethoate @ 0.05 % to control aphids effectively

Thrips Causes leaf curling & drooping of premature flowers Reduce the flowering % & hence yield Crop rotation, weed control, seed treatment with imidacloprid 70 % @ 10 to 15 gm per each kg of seeds. Also, give phorate 10 % G @ 12 kg/ha to control effectively

Fruit borer This caterpillar eat leaves which late make bores on pods. Lower down the quality and quantity of fruits. Collect & destroy the affected fruits. Spray Bacillus thuringiensis at 10 gm/ litre

Broad Mites Mites sucks plant juice at midvein on the underside of leaves. Cause curling of leaf, developing corky tissues on fruits. select pest-resistant varieties, & weed control, crop rotation, Spray dimethoate at 0.05 % is beneficial.

Mealybug Bug sucks saps tender shoots, leaves, and fruits. Pest causes curling of leaves & dropping of fruits. Spray with 0.02% dichlorvos or with 0.025% quinalphos along with fish oil rosin soap to control effectively.

Root-knot nematode Insect pest destroys root system by growing small roots galls. Infected plants turn wilt yellow. Avoid production on sandy soils with hot weather. Select resistant variety, crop rotation, can reduce them.
Chilli Diseases and Their Control

Learn the list of common diseases, observed in chilli production along with their symptoms and control measures.

PESTS SYMPTOMS CAUSE PREVENTION:

Damping Off Serious disease of seedlings observed on nursery bed. Affected seedlings display rot on the base of plants, & plant died off. Treat seeds properly with Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 15 gm/kg seeds, 1 day before sowing. Avoid Waterlogging. Regularly Spray with fungicides.

☆ Leaf Spot Disease Infected leaves have small and dark greasy spots. Water-soaked like spots develop on green fruits. Leaf drop off of infected plants Spray Agrimycin @ 200 ppm along with copper oxychloride (0.3 %) to control effectively.

☆ Anthracnose Disease Dark & sunken spots formed on fruits, dark pink coloured dots emerge at the centre formed spots. Fruits rot and dropping occur Avoid shadily & moist climate conditions, Select disease-free quality seeds. Discard off infected ones, Spray crop by using Mancozeb @ 2.5 gm/ litre.

☆ Powdery mildew – – Spray Carbendazim @ 1 gm/liter. Spray about 3 times at an interval of two weeks
Leaf Curl Disease Cause small size of leaves and downward curling Leaves start falling off, mainly spread due to aphids & thrips Control Thrips & Aphids.

CHILLI PLANT GROWING STAGES .

How long does it take to grow chillies? is depended on the variety, growing season, climate conditions, soil type, soil fertility and water supply. However, on an avg, it takes about 5 to 6 months to become fully mature after planting on the field.

There are two growth stages, namely vegetative stage, and reproductive stage. Usually, the vegetative stage tends to extend for about 75 to 85 days accompanied by the reproductive stage of 85 to 95 days.

In vegetative growth stage, an increase of plant height, branching, etc takes place. For better aeration and proper sunlight infiltration into the canopy, cloudy branching should be followed. It also prevents fruit rot disease.

Chilli plant flowering time starts from around 45 days after planting seedlings on the main field. And this crop is cross-pollinated with having 50 % of the natural crossing in it. After pollination in the crop, about 40 to 45 days of time is needed for starting fruit development and to attain maturity in the crop.

》HARVESTING CHILLIES .

The maturing age depends on the cultivar, chosen for production. Generally, it takes about more than two months for fruits to become fully ripen after the flowering season starts. Harvesting also depends on the market need.

For selling freshly harvested in local, harvest fully grown immature green chillies. And for canning, harvest fully mature red chillies. And for making powder, harvesting of fully matured riped dry fruits.

Harvesting should be done on alternate days to obtain higher yield for few months and to meet the market need. However, it is quite important to store them at proper place to maintain the pungency and red colour.

Since having much perishable nature they require attention while harvesting and after harvesting. The collected fruits should be stored in proper place and transported to local market. Also, harvesting at proper maturity leads to higher production as yield.

》POST-HARVESTING TASK .

The post harvesting in the chilli production includes the Drying, Grading, Packing and preserving at a suitable place. It is helpful maintaining the quality and quantity of fruits to earn higher market rate.

》YIELD OF CHILLI FARMING

Yield depends on cultivar, soil type, and fertility, facility of irrigation along with farm management skills, practised during cultivation process. However, on an avg, one can easily obtain about 2 to 2.5 tonnes of dried chillies whereas about more than 10 tonnes of green chillies as yield.

But, yields are higher for production with the facility of irrigation in compare to rainfed crops.

》 MARKETING .

The marketing of chillies include the following points:

Supply freshly harvested green chillies to the local market on the basis of market requirement.
And, for red chilli production, it is a good idea to contact a nearby chilli powder maker or industry for the bulk sale.
However, dry chilli production is more profitable farming over the green because there is always great market demand for it. And, one can really make a big one from it.

As shared by Anthony Peter ® The E Hub®

Broccoli Farming | Detailed Informations & Guide for Best Yield.Little About Growing Broccoli

Suddenly, You may think that What is Broccoli?… Basically, Broccoli is also one of the delicious and edible green vegetable plants, which falls under the cabbage family. In general, the large flowering head of broccoli is eaten as a vegetable in our day to day life.

In fact, it is a cool-season crop, which can be grown in the spring season & fall season. The main advantage of growing Broccoli is that this green vegetable plant can be harvested throughout the year if plantation is done accurately.

As a member of the cabbage family, it is a most selected for the home garden. Fresh heads of broccoli are rich in almost all kinds of vitamins & minerals. Apart from this, they are tasty and delicious as a raw in salads as well as when lightly steamed and frozen well. And, it the best choice for making a big profit in the rural area as a good economy.

However, when it comes to the description of Broccoli plant, a large and green flower heads grows on its plant, specially arranged in a tree-like structure and branching out from a thick and edible stalk. The edible head is covered by several leaves. It also resembles the cauliflower which does not belong to this family.

It is eaten as a raw, boiled, steamed as well as in the stir-fried state. It is one of the most nutritious green vegetables in the world. As it is full of minerals and vitamins. It is an excellent source of iron, magnesium, and calcium along with vitamin ‘A’ and vitamin ‘C’.

The word “Broccoli” is an Italian plural of ‘Broccolo’ which mean’s “the flowering top of a cabbage”.

Basically, this can be grown in indoors, pots, containers, greenhouses, poly house, as well as under the shade nets. Presently, Growing Broccoli hydroponically is the best idea, which helps in getting excellent yields with a minimum input in this vegetable crop.

Scientific Name or Botanical Name of Broccoli

The scientific name and botanical name of broccoli is Brassica oleracea. It belongs to the family Brassicaceae and to the genus Brassica.

Most Productive Broccoli Varieties for Commercial Farming.

When going for commercial vegetable production, it is essential to growing the best productive variety of broccoli in order to get excellent vegetable yield with minimum care and management.

So, here I had listed worlds most productive varieties of broccoli, best suitable for commercial farming in different climate conditions. Check out all.

》Paraiso (Hybrid broccoli Paraiso) – It is best for crown cut, bunching, and florets. It is also best for florets processing. It attains maturity after about 75 days from transplanting Or in 95 days if directly sowed on the main field. Its plant has an excellent upright habit, and it produces heads with a large dome and fine, dark-green beads.

》Gemini – It produces uniform heads with nice presentation. And, are best suitable for concentrated harvesting. This fresh market hybrid is perfect for summer and autumn crown production.

》Constellation – It produces dense heads on the erected plant. It is also best suitable for concentrated harvesting.

》Blue Wind – It heads are medium sized, blue-green in color with small and attractive beads. It gives uniform production and is easy to harvest. After maturity, Harvest immediately because it does not hold in the field as well as later varieties. It has Unsized seed.

》Tahoe RZ – They have very high yield potential. And, performs their best from cool to hot climate conditions. They produce smooth, dense and high domed heads with small to medium, uniform beads. They have attractive dark green color and are excellent for crowns.

》Emerald Crown – It is very uniform, medium maturing heavy-headed domed variety of broccoli with small beads on a small-framed plant. It can be grown well from cool season to warm season (avoid growing in rainy season). It can extend the Green Magic slot into cold due to its resistance to purpling. They produce excellent quality crown cuts in a very short time period in all NAFTA regions.

》Centennial – It has small beads, smoother heads with minimal sides hoots. In fact, it is a multi-use broccoli variety that performs it best in all kind of Marathon slots. The main advantage is, it can be grown throughout the year in the cool coastal growing regions.

》Marathon – For commercial broccoli farming, Marathon is widely adaptable variety. And, it gives outstanding results for the fresh-market bunching, processing, and the increasingly popular crown cut market. It produces small bead with a high dome and heavy head.

》Imperial – This broccoli variety performs it best during the long-day climate conditions with a gentle warm condition. It produces a tight dome with nice, dark-green small, beads. It is also multi-used variety and mostly grown for bunching, crown cut, and processing.

》Avenger – An excellent choice for the processing markets and crown cut. It produces tight, heavy, dome-shaped, blue-green heads with short bracts having thick stems and very small beads. When it comes to growing areas, it is widely adopted in U.S., Mexico, and Guatemala to get excellent results with great yield potential.

However, they can be also classified based on their colors. Like Broccoli raab, Heading Type (Green), Romanesco, Sprouting Type (Green and Purple), etc.

Where Does Broccoli Grow?

Broccoli can be grown in greenhouses, poly houses, pot, containers, in backyards or on large scale commercially. However, it is essential to growing broccoli in suitable climate conditions with soil required to obtain optimum production.

Climate Conditions for Broccoli Farming.

Basically, it is a cool-season crop that can be cultivated throughout the year under controlled conditions like greenhouses and playhouses. If not possible, it can be grown in both; spring and fall on the open and large field.

Broccoli can thrive their best in growing temperature around 18 °C to 20 °C. And, for excellent germination, the ideal soil temp should be around 20 °C to 22 °C.

But, do not that this crop is very sensitive to both, very low and high temp during growing period. So, for cultivating broccoli in such type of region, farmers should go with improved varieties having a good tolerance to high temperatures.

Soil Requirement for Broccoli Farming.

Soil Selection is an important task for the commercial broccoli cultivation. This vegetable crop can be grown over a wide range of soil from light sandy loams to heavy clay loams with good drainage capacity and should also rich in all organic matters.

However, to obtain excellent yield with optimum production, cultivation should be done on clay loam or deep sandy loam soil with good amount of humus content and good drainage capacity.

The optimum soil pH for good yield should be in between 6.3 to 7.2 pH value. Cultivation of broccoli on soil having soil pH less than 6.0 should be avoided. However, for growing on such kinds of soils, it should be corrected by applying only required amount of lime.

To achieved excellent production from commercial broccoli farming, it is advised to keep rotating the crop with other non-crucifers crops. It is also advised to the grower to go for a soil test before growing on the field. It will help to learn the suitability of soil. And, also helps to understand the nutrients and minerals deficiency, which need to be corrected.

How to Grow Broccoli Vegetables?

Land Preparation for Broccoli Farming.

Land preparation also plays a very important role in the commercial broccoli cultivation. So, bring down the soil in fine tilth form by giving two or three plowing before planting. Extra weeds should be removed along with other dead material from the field.

For single row planting on raised beds, furrows of 0.5 meter apart should be made, whereas, for double row planting, it should be 1.0 meter wide and 0.5 meters apart.

Propagation in Broccoli Farming.

Propagation in Broccoli vegetable farming is mainly done by seeds. It can be achieved by direct seeding on the main field. Or by transplanting the seedlings, grows on nurseries beds on the field.

Presently, Modern farmers used to grow broccoli seedling, raised in nurseries using the cell trays.

Planting in Broccoli Farming.

When it comes to planting broccoli vegetables, they can germinate their best at 12 ºC soil temp. However, they require hot climate conditions with moist and slightly acidic fertile soil during the growing period.

For growing by direct seeding on the field, highly qualified seeds should be sown directly to the ground by keeping some distance between them. However, for transplanting the nursery-raised seedlings, transplant the seedlings having 3 to 6 true leaves and are three to four weeks old.

Broccoli Growing Season

For spring plantations, transplantations should be done around 2 weeks before the last spring frost. It helps to lessen down the maturity days, around 10 days less.

And, for fall plantation, seeding should be done around 85 days before the first fall frost appears. Fall plantation is the best suitable for growing this vegetable crop as they thrive their best under cool climate conditions. On an average, planting should be done from mid to late summer

Broccoli Planting Depth

Seed should be sown, around 1/2 inch deep. And, seedling should be transplanted slightly deeper than they were grown originally.

Thinning of seedling should be done in case of overseeding in order to give room for the broccoli to grow healthily.

Seed rate & Spacing in Broccoli Farming

Spacing and Seed rate varies accordingly to the selected cultivar, soil quality, and fertility, planting method, etc. However, on an average, 300 gm to 500 gm quality seeds are good enough for planting on unit hectare land.

However, after spending and transplanting seedling, thinning should be at about 3 cm apart after 2 to 3 days of germination.

Spacing for single row planting should be 40 cm to 45 cm apart, whereas, for double row planting, the spacing should be 60 cm to 65 cm. Grown seedling must be watered sufficiently for several hours before planting on the field in order to avoid the wilting during transplanting. A light irrigation must be done, just after transplanting the seedlings.

Irrigation in Broccoli Farming

The first irrigation should be carried out, just after transplanting the seedlings on the main field. However, the frequency of irrigations depends on the type of soil and climate conditions. It is very important to maintain the proper soil moisture during the complete growing period to ensure higher production.

After the first irrigation, subsequent irrigations should be carried out at an interval of 7 to 10 days, depending on soil moisture level and weather conditions.

Make sure to not get wet the developing heads while watering the plants. In case of drought and hot conditions, it is essential to provide consistent soil moisture with regular watering & never let the soil dry. Mulching is the best option to prevent higher moisture loss and extra weed growth.

Manures and Fertilizers in Broccoli Farming.

This vegetable crop responds very well to the application of manures and fertilizers. In fact, it requires well fertile soil in order to get optimum production. So, about 10 tonnes of Well-decomposed farmyard manure should be applied at the time of land preparation per unit hectare land. One can also apply it about 3 to 4 weeks before the seedling transplantation.

Also, at the time of planting seedlings on the main field, about 120 kg of Nitrogen, 80 kg of Phosphorous, and 80 kg of Pottasium should be applied to this crop. The nitrogen should be given in different split doses.

The half dose should be given at the time of seedling transplantation.

The 2nd dose, about 1/4 should be given after about 30 to 35 days of planting.

The remaining 1/4 should be given after about 45 days of planting.

Pests and Diseases in Broccoli Farming

In commercial farming of broccoli, it is very important to control pests and diseases in order to ensure high-quality production. So, check the list of all diseases, pests, and insect that are commonly observed in the broccoli production.

Broccoli Diseases

• Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria brassicae
• Black rot Xanthomonas campestris
• Clubroot Plasmodiophora brassicae
• Powdery mildew Erysiphe cruciferarum
• Sclerotinia stem rot (White mold) Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
• White rust Albugo candida
• Blackleg Phoma lingam
• Downy mildew Hyaloperonospora parasitica
• Wirestem (Damping-off) Rhizoctonia solani
Ring spot Mycosphaerella brassicicola

Broccoli Pests & Insects

Diamondback moth Plutella xylostella

Flea beetle (Crucifer flea beetle) Phyllotreta Cruciferae

Large cabbage white (Cabbageworm) Pieres Rapae

Thrips (Western flower thrips, Onion thrips, etc.) Frankliniella Occidentalis
Thrips tabaci

Root-knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

Harvesting in Broccoli Farming

In a very short time period, around 80 to 90 days from the planting on the main field, broccoli attain their maturity. However, the maturity age varies depending on the cultivar. Quality broccoli heads should be harvested, when they attain their full maturity with proper size and firm. And, never wait until the clustered buds begin to open.

Cutting off the broccoli heads along with 25 cm of the edible stem portion should be carried out manually with local workers with good supervision in order to maintain the quality of vegetable. For harvesting, make use of a sharp knife in order to cut the head stem, little above from the below head. Most of the cultivar has side-shoots which allow other heads to develop, even after the main head being harvested. This also helps in getting production at different interval of time.

To get good quality of heads, the best time of harvesting is the early morning. And, then after, packing of heads should be done as soon as possible after cutting from the plants.

Yield in Broccoli Farming

The yield of this crop depends on numbers of factors including variety, soil type, climate and other garden management skills, practiced during the cultivation.

However, on an average, one can easily obtain 200 to 250 quintals per unit hectare land, depending upon the variety.

Shared by Anthony peter © 2019

ONION FARMING PRODUCTION GUIDE & INFORMATION FOR BEGINNERS.

Onion is one of the most consumed vegetables throughout the globe and because of which, is it also one of the most and widely grown commercial vegetable and spice crop all over the globe. Onions have great market demand all over the world, especially in the international market. It can be used as vegetables in the immature stage as well as also in the mature stage, after the complete formation of the bulb.

They can be harvested before bulb formation for using as a green vegetable as well after the bulb formation to use it as a spice. Onions are well known for their pungency, which exist because of the volatile oil which is known as the ally-propyl disulfide in them. These spicy vegetables are mostly consumed because it has excellent health benefits along with high nutrition value.

Commercial onion farming or onion cultivation is very much successful over the other crop spice and vegetable crops across the globe. However, onions can be grown in the backyards, greenhouses, containers, pots, etc. And one can easily create a sharp and instant profit by growing onions commercially. Growing onion is a not hard working job, but it requires good farm management should be practiced during the cultivation or growing period.

China is the top producer of onions in the world followed by India.

Onion | Scientific Name & Botanical Name

The scientific name and botanical name of onion are Allium cepa which belongs to the family “Amaryllidaceae” and to the genus “Allium”.

Health Benefits of Onions

There are plenty of health benefits of eating onions because of their high nutrition values. However, here below is a list of some of the health benefits of Onion. Learn the list:

》Onions are helpful in preventing tooth decay and also prevent us from oral infections.

》Onion also helps in improving the working of immune system and health.

》Onions are also beneficial in treating many kinds of heart-related disorders & cardiovascular diseases.

》Onions contain chromium, a rare mineral in the foods which useful in controlling sugar level in the body and also the diabetes level.

》Onion juice is also beneficial in reducing the pain induced by honey bee stings.

》Onions contain a significant amount of quercetinwhichis very powerful antioxidant in prevention and reduction of cancer to spread more.

》Onion juice is also beneficial in gives relief from acute earache problem.

》It is also the natural anti-inflammatory agent and reduces the inflammation conditions such as gout, arthritis, etc.

》It also treats cough problem.

》They are also helpful in increasing the urge of the healthy sex life.

》It corrects the iron deficiency of body since are an excellent source of minerals and vitamin, especially the iron content.

》Onions are beneficial the in the prevention of stomach cancer and breast cancer.

》They also contain vitamin C with very high content which helps in minimizing the impact and presence of free radicals.

》It also relieves us from the burning sensation occurs during urination.The E Hub.

Where do Onions Grow?

Agroclimatic Conditions for Onion Farming.

Onions can be cultivated over a wider range of agroclimatic conditions and weather. Generally, this cool season vegetable crop is cultivated in the winter and is harvested completely, before the summer starts. However, a mild season with low temp is best suitable for commercial cultivation of onion. They can be grown up to 14000 to 18000 on elevation under rainfed conditions from April to August.

However, it requires a good temp ranging from 15 ° C to 25° C during the vegetative growth and 16 ° C to 20° C during the bulb formation, along with 28 ° C to 33 ° C at the time of harvesting.

What Kind of Soil Suits for Onion Farming?

Onion farming can be done over a wide variety of soil including sandy loam soils to clayed loam soils with the facility of good drainage. However, red loam soils to black soils, sandy loam soils, with good organic content are considered as the best suitable for onion farming for optimum production. It also requires deep friable soil having soil pH ranging from 5.5 to 7.0 for better production. Adding organic matter at the time of land preparation is beneficial in increasing the production of bulbs in onion cultivation.

How to Grow Onion?

Selection of Suitable Onion Variety

There is three main category of onion variety, which is mostly used for onion cultivation. These three are red, white and yellow. But, there are many improved commercial varieties of onion, which are grown for their high yielding power, according to specific climate conditions and weather.

However, here below is a list of major onion cultivars, which are best for higher production.

☆ Scallions.

☆ Spring Onions.

☆ Vidalias.

☆ Ramps.

☆ Yellow Onions.

☆ White Onions.

☆ Red Onions.

☆ Shallots.

☆ Pearl Onions.

☆ Cippolini Onions.

☆ Leeks.

Land Preparation for Onion Farming:

A good land preparation in onion cultivation may multiply the yield many times and it also tells us about the suitability of soils for growing onions. However, the soil should be brought in friable conditions and fine tilth form by giving about 4 to 5 deep ploughings. Also, it should be free from weeds any kind of extra material.

The cultivation soil should have a facility of good drainage to drained out excessive water easily. However, to increase the soil fertility and productivity of soil, add about 20 tonnes of farmyard manure at the time of the last plowing and any soil deficiency should be supplemented at this stage only. Make furrows and ridges in the prepared field.

How to Plant Onions?

Way of Propagation

This vegetable spice crop is mainly propagated with the help of seeds.

Seed Rate & Seed Treatment:

The seed rate in onion cultivation depends on the cultivar, soil type and planting method used for cultivation. However, on an avg, about 10 kg of seeds are needed for growing onions on one-hectare land.

The selected seed should be treated well with Azospirillum at 350 grams per each kg of seed through adhesive and dry rice gruel under shade for about 30 to 45 min and sow them directly on the field. Also, apply VAM 1 kg per sq. meters on the raised beds before sowing seeds on the field.

HOW TO RAISE ONION SEEDS:

Seeds are directly sown on the nursery beds having 3 to 4 m length and 1.25 m width. Usually, these seedling become ready for transplanting on the ground in about 45 days after sowing.

ONION PLANTING SEASON:

Onion can be cultivated throughout the year as a Kharif season crop, late Kharif season crop, and Rabi season crop. For ‘Kharif’ season crop from June to July whereas ‘Rabi’ season crop from Oct to Nov.

ONION PLANTING METHODS:

Sowing of seeds should be done in ridges and flatbed or furrow method of planting. Generally, furrow method of planting onion is more preferred over the ridge method since higher yield is there in the furrow method. There will be also an equal sharing of water and fertilizers in this method.

ONION PLANTING SPACING:

The row spacing in both, the furrow method and ridge method should be 10 cm X 15 cm whereas the spacing between plants should be 10 cm.

Always try to plant only 45 days older seedlings on the ground.

IRRIGATION IN ONION FARMING:

First irrigation is essential at the time of transplanting of seedlings or dibbling or cloves on the ground & a light irrigation is on the 3rd day of transplantation for better germination %age. Then after, subsequent irrigation should be done at once a week or at an interval of 10 days on the basis of soil type and climate conditions because of the shallow root system in the onions.

Usually, onions require irrigation @ water rate of 30″ at the time of growing periods. But, the water need of onion plants increases at their maturity or bulb formation because if water is not provided in sufficient quantity, bulb formation may not take properly. However, watering should be stopped when the necks falling over begins in the field and bulb becomes mature.

However, do not give overhead irrigation since it may invite foliage diseases. The over irrigated foilage becomes unhealthy & yellowish tint in the plants whereas under watered soil becomes dry and may results in cracks.

MICROIRRIGATION AND FERTIGATION IN ONION FARMING:

For irrigating through drip irrigation system, operating pressure should be 1.5 kg per sq. cm whereas for micro sprinkler, operating pressure should be 2.5 kg per sq. cm. Fertigation with drip irrigation system should be done with the help of Urea or nitrogen fertilizers. For this, apply 50 % Nitrogen as the basal dose and the remaining dose in seven different spilts at an interval of 10 days.

APPLICATION OF MANURE & FERTILIZERS IN ONION FARMING.

Apply about 20 tonnes of farmyard manure as the basal dose at the time of land preparation along with 2 kg of Azospirillum and 2 kg of Phosphobacteria per hectare land. Also, apply 50 kg of Nitrogen, 50 kg Zinc sulfate, 75 kg of Potassium and 150 kg of Phosphorous per hectare at the last plowing. Also, add about 50 kg of Nitrogen to the topmost soil after one month of transplanting seedlings.

INTERCULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN ONION FARMING:

HOEING & WEED CONTROL.

Weed control is essential for obtaining good yield or production in onion farming, if not, then it may lead to damage in onion bulbs. About 3 manual hoeing with weeding is enough for controlling weeds in the crop. Earthing up of poor plants is also essential after 3 to 4 irrigations along with mulching. Mulching can be carried out for controlling weed and water conservation in this crop.

CROP ROTATION:

Crop rotation in onion farming is very important. Growing soya beans in Kharif season crop followed by onion crop as a Rabi season crop is the best combination since it also improves the fertility of soil with instant and sharp returns.

PESTS & DISEASES IN ONION FARMING.

ONION PESTS:

The following are the three main pests of onion, which are commonly observed in the onion crop:

》Armyworms

》Cutworms

》Onion thrips

ONION DISEASES:

The following are the main diseases of onion, which are commonly observed in the onion crop:

☆Leaf spot.

☆Bacterial blight.

☆White rot.

☆Iris yellow spot.

☆Fusarium wilt.

☆Downy mildew.

☆Pink root.

☆Purple blotch.

Harvesting Onions:

Generally, onion bulbs attain their maturity when plants stop producing new leaves and roots which is generally identified by the neck fall. However, the harvesting of onion bulbs depends on the variety, planting season, market price, climate condition, used for onion production. But, usually, onion bulbs are harvested when the neck fall reaches to 50 %age of the total crop since harvesting at full maturity is beneficial in higher production. After harvesting, onions can be stored for about 6 months. So, first of all, think a place for storing them at proper place get an appropriate market rate.

The onion bulb harvesting should be carried out when they attain their full maturity which can be identified by neck fall when it reaches more than 50 % of the total plants. However, the harvesting of onion bulbs depends on cultivar, planting season, market price, climate conditions, etc practiced during the cultivation.

Bulb harvesting at their full maturity can be stored for about more than 6 months.

When to & How to Harvest Onions?

Bulbs harvesting should be done manually by hand pulling bulbs from the soil. Irrigation should be stopped before two weeks of harvesting bulbs. Onion bulbs along with the tops should be kept on the field for about 3 to 4 days and curing for about 4 days in essential to eliminate the excess moisture of the bulbs from the outmost skin and neck to minimize the shrinkage & color development in the storage.

Yield in Onion Farming:

The yield of onion farming depends on numbers of numbers of key factors including the soil type, climate conditions, weather, onion variety along with good farm management skills, practiced during the cultivation process. The time of sowing also matters a lot in the yield. If it is sown as Kharif & late Kharif season crop, then about 20 to 35 tonnes of onion bulbs can be easily harvested whereas if it is cultivated as Rabi season crop, then more than 25 tonnes of bulbs can be harvested.

MARKETING OF ONIONS.

There is no worry more about the marketing of your produce onions. These vegetables are all time in demand in the market. They can be easily sold at any wholesales store or any retail store.

Bottom Line.

Onions are regularly asked by the people at a good market rate and can be easily sold throughout the whole year. As this crop is able to grow as three different season crop, farmers can earn sharp & instant income within a time period of 4 to 5 months.

The E Hub © 2020

SOYA BEANS FARMING.🚜🚜🚜

Soya bean is a crop that belongs to the same family as beans, groundnuts, sunflower, tomato, egg plant and many more. It is a crop native/indigenous to East Asia (China), which is one of the five oldest crops cultivated by the Chinese for food before 2500BC.

They are collectively called leguminous crops. Unlike maize, the bulk of soya beans consumed in Zambia are grown by the commercial farmers and some of the emergent farmers Though, it is a crop that is not too difficult to grow, if one judiciously follows its requirements. It is not by design that small-holder farmers don’t grow much of it, but for some reasons have to do with the way it is marketed.

CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS

It is a crop that can be grown in a wide range of soils, though it does very well in deep well drained sandy loam to clay loam. For economic yields, avoid growing it in sandy soils. However, the soils should also not have a PH less than 5.6. PH is scale on which we measure soil condition in terms of acidity. The scale is from 0 to 14, with values near zero being very acidic while the opposite is true for 14. Soils that have pH 7 are neither acidic nor alkaline, they are said to be neutral, 0 to 6.9 is very acidic to slightly acidic while 7.0 is neutral and 7.1 to 14 is slightly basic to very basic).

Preferably, soils are recommended to have a pH range of 5.5 to around 7.1 because that is the range which promotes most crop production. Thought I should mention that it is relatively cheaper to reclaim a soil that is acidic unlike one which has higher pH values, and luckily enough most lands in Zambia have soils that are acidic especially in region III. The topic of soil acidity will be dealt with later in the future articles.

Therefore, the range of 5.6 to around 7.1 would be the ideal range for our soya beans production. The problems with soils that are very acidic are that some elements that are important for soya beans growth will not be in the unavailable form for the crop to access them.

One of the elements which are critical for soya beans growth is phosphorus and at very low pH, it is found in amounts that are not available to the crop (complexed form or fixed in soils. I will not delve into the science behind the availability as this could be too detailed for this space. Some people might be tempted to say even if the soil is quite acidic (lower than 5); I will apply too much fertiliser. My advice to such lines of thinking is that you are just wasting your resources because it is like putting one table spoon of sugar in five litres of water and expecting the solution to be as sweet as zig(sugar solution).
However, for some farmers that might be found in soils that are in such conditions, the remedy is to apply lime (mind you, one can find very acidic soils even in region I, it doesn’t just come about due to high rainfall but also the agricultural practices such as continual application of acidifying fertilisers like urea and ammonium nitrates for a very long time without liming. This crop also needs rainfall ranges of between 500millimetres to around 1000millimetres depending on the variety that one wants to plant. The rainfall has to be well distributed.

The crop also needs a frost-free season and do not need to be grown in areas where temperatures go beyond 400C for a long time. With this information, you will see that it can be grown in a wide geographical coverage of Zambia. In areas where rainfall is not well-distributed and falls on the lower bracket, irrigation can supplement its growth if one can afford.

ADVICE BY SOYA TECH ZAMBIA

Farmers are encouraged to seek advice from agricultural extension staff from the Ministry of Agriculture, ZNFU and some private companies such as Seed-Co, MRI, ZamSeed, Pannar, Pioneer and many more. After being satisfied by the environmental conditions, the next thing that the farmer who we shall be calling a ‘green entrepreneur’, needs to search for a suitable variety in the area he/she is found. Just like maize, we have varieties that are early maturing and those that are late maturing.

The other very cardinal point to note is that some varieties do shatter (explode when they are mature) while others take long or may not at all. This is a very important characteristic to know because if one plants a shattering variety and goes in late to harvest, they will have high losses.

NOTE: The Demand for soybeans has increased at almost four times the pace of population growth in the past decade.

1. About 66% of all soybeans grown are used in livestock and poultry feed.
2. About 16% becomes vegetable oil for cooking or biofuel.
3. Around 18% is processed directly into food, without morphing into meat, milk and eggs first.
4. China has a voracious appetite for soybeans, buying one in every five soybeans grown on the planet. Of the million tonnes of soybeans grown l, China purchases million tonnes of it.

All this is good news for farmers in Southern Africa who are now finishing their soybean harvest.

GROWING SOYA FIRST YEAR ACCORDING TO SEBASTIAN SCOTT A SEASONED FARMER

1. You will want to grow soya on 75 or 90cm rows and the best variety I have come across for planting in the first year is Zamseed Lukanga. In subsequent years, different varieties may do better.
   Planting soya beans can be done on ridges or flat land. You can also use conservation methods in planting this crop and the plant specification depends on the level of management one will implore. However, farmers should not plant less that 60 kilogrammes per hectare if one wants to get near the yield potentials of most varieties.
2. The recommended rates for most of the varieties are around 80 to 100 kilogrammes of seed per hectare, that’s approximately one seed every 4cm in the row when planted at 75cm between rows and approx. one seed every 3cm when planted on 90cm rows. planting depth – between 2 and 3 cm. And the newly released varieties have yield potential of between 3.0 to about 6.0 tonnes per hectare as compared to old varieties that would yield around 1.5 tonnes. Mind you, if you want more money in your pockets, you need to plant improved varieties that will give you maximum yields.
   Best time to plant this specific variety is between the first and third week of December. Yield – depends on many factors!
3. At planting, I would advise you to use inoculum with some sort of molybdenum source such as molyflo-t, you can get this from MRI, it’s 65kwacha or so for enough to treat 25kg seed, so you will about 4 packets to cover 1 Hectare. Inoculum is not fertiliser but these are small living things (bacteria -harmless to people) which when well applied will help soya beans use the atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into nitrates. We all know that nitrogen is one of the most important macro nutrients needed for not only soya beans growth but even other crops. A word of caution is that this inoculum should not be used to substitute the fertiliser because then we shall starve the plant off other necessary nutrients like phosphorus, potassium, boron and many others.
4. I would also advise you to apply some lime, approx. 6*50kg bags per ha (this will be approx. 1 baked bean tin of lime to cover 40 meters of row) along the row, after planting if you’re using a planter or alternatively, you can make rip-lines using either oxen or a tractor or simply draw a hoe trough the soil to make a furrow. Try to get the lines straight!
5. In the first year it is also advisable to add some kind of nutrients. I would recommend the use of a small amount of manure applied in the rip line before planting or in the row during planting if you are using the planter. I use approx. 40 bags of chicken manure or 80 bags of cattle manure per Ha on soya, however it is important not to pay too much for it (5k per 50kg bag or so) and transport can be expensive. Make sure you cover the manure when you apply it in the field and don’t place too much too close to the seed or you may burn the seed. The other option is to use 2 bags of D compound per Ha.

COMPANION PLANTS. Potatoes, cucumbers, corn, strawberries, celery, maize, summer savory. Do not plant soybeans with onion or garlic.

WEED CONTROL

All those that want to venture in soya beans should take note that unlike some crops, it does not compete well with weeds in the early stages of its growth (first four weeks). However, we are lucky that just like maize, there are herbicides that one can spray in order to control the level of weed infestation.

Young seedlings are unable to compete with many fast- growing weeds and their control at this stage is very im- portant. Chemical control can be used but it needs spe- cial attention because there can be a toxic interaction between herbicides/insecticides used in the previous season and those applied to the current crop. Wide spec- trum soy bean herbicides are registered for preplant, pre- emergence and post-emergence application. The types of weeds that are predominant will tell what kind of herbicide to apply, is it broad leaves or grass? In 2005, I remember visiting a farmer who was complaining that the herbicide he had applied was not effective as the weeds where not killed, and when we went into his field to verify, he was right. After a thorough inspection and questioning, it was learnt that the farmer had applied the right type of herbicide but in a wrong type of soil.

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

Soya beans are susceptible to various viral and fungal dis- eases caused by different pathogens. Insects that may cause damage to soy beans are cutworms at emergence, soy bean loopers; various worms and green stinkbug dur- ing pod development. Integrated pests and disease man- agement mechanisms can be used to control the pests and diseases.

There are some herbicides that can be sprayed before germination and others that can be sprayed after germination (over the soya beans). Farmers need to visit various chemical companies to be advised on what kind and type of herbicides to use on particular soils.
The clay content will determine what type of herbicide to apply and what rates, this was not followed. Just like people, soya beans are living things and they can get diseases and die. There are so many diseases that affect soya beans but the disease infestation is not so much pronounced with the small-holders as it is with the commercial farmers.

The one major reason for the disparity is that commercial farmers follow intensive type of cultivation due to limited land unlike small-holder farmers who may leave some land furrow for sometime (however, smallholder farmers must also practise better land management ).

It is affected by both fungal and bacterial diseases such as rust, powdery mildew, and bacterial blight, red leaf blotch and others. There are also several pests that affect soybeans, such as caterpillars, aphids, cutworms and birds.

There are some chemicals that may be used to control these except for birds (please avoid baiting birds as you may end up killing other people, just scare them away).

The best preventive measure to control pests and diseases is to follow what I call field hygiene – which starts with proper crop rotation, physical barriers and use of chemicals. Soybeans are rarely attacked by disease. Rotate beans so that they do not grow in the same location more than every three years.

HARVESTING TIME

A delay in harvesting soya beans can result in serious loss due to shat- tering. Harvesting should commence when most of the leaves have been shed and the moisture content of the seed falls below 15% but while the stems are still pliable. 90% of the pods will turn brown and shatter easily and kernels will not yet be dry enough to break. This can be done through moisture testing. Otherwise, experienced producers can detect maturity by the colour of the pods and the shattering ability. When soya beans are ready for harvesting, pods will turn brown and shatter easily and the kernels will not yet be dry enough to break.

Pods normally shatter when ripe, releasing the seeds, the rate and degree of shattering being varietal characteristics, and early or high shattering characteristics are detrimental in types harvested mechanically.

HARVESTING METHODS

Soya beans are not suited to hand harvesting, stacking or wind rowing. The recommended harvesting method is to use a combine harvester fitted with either a soya bean or wheat table.,Self-propelled combines with a reasonable ca- pacity should be able to harvest 14 hectares a day. When combining soya beans, a slow drum speed (450-500 revolutions per minute) is required. The concaves must be set wider than for wheat and a slow ground speed (approximately 6 km/h) must be used. The faster the drum speed, the more splits will occur. To further minimise losses, the combine must be adjusted as low as possible. The combine must cut the plants as close to the soil surface as possible in order to minimise the number of pods left behind. The maturity period is fairly short and the availability of the harvesting equipments is therefore crucial, especially when unfavourable weather conditions may be expected during the harvesting period.

CROP UTILISATION

1. Human consumption: Seeds furnish one of the world’s most important sources of oil and protein. Unripe seeds are eaten as a vegetable and dried seeds are eaten whole, split or sprouted. Processed, they give soy milk, a valuable protein supplement in infant feeding, which also provides curds and cheese. Soy sauce, made from the mature fermented beans, and soy are ingredients in other sauces. Roasted seeds are used as a coffee substitute or can be used to make soy flour.
2. Industrial uses: Oil is used industrially in the manufac- turing of paints, linoleum, oilcloth, printing inks, soap, in- secticides and disinfectants. Lecithin phospholipids are

obtained as a by-product of the oil industry and are used as a wetting and stabilising agent in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, leather, paint, plastic and detergent in- dustries. Soy bean meal is used in the manufacturing of synthetic fibre, adhesives, textile sizing; waterproofing, fire-fighting foam and for many other purposes. The straw can be used to make paper stiffer than that made from wheat straw.

3. Animal feed: The larger consumer of protein-rich meal in South Africa is represented by the poultry industry, espe- cially the broiler industry, which has a high demand for quality protein. Soy meal is a very rich protein feed for livestock and there is an increasing demand for it. The vegetative portions of plants are used for silage, hay, pas- ture or fodder, or may be ploughed back into the soil as a green manure.

Sebastian Scott ® Soya Tech.®The E Hub®

HOW TO GROW ONIONS ON A SMALL FARM.

Onions are a great crop for the small farmer. They’re a kitchen staple and play a role in a great number of recipes. You can grow your basic yellow onion, or any of a number of fanciers and heirloom varieties, depending on your market.

Planting:
Onion sets should be planted from mid-March to mid-April. Gently push onion sets into the soft soil so that just the tip shows. Firm up the soil around them. If planting from seed, sow seeds a half inch deep from late February through early April.

Onion sets should be planted four inches apart from each other in rows 12 inches apart. Onion seeds should be sown in rows eight inches apart. Thin weaker seedlings, first to two inches apart and then to four inches apart.

Growing Notes:
Onions do best in sunny, sheltered sites with well-drained, well-worked soil. Ground with fresh manure can cause onions to rot. Onions also like being directly in the soil the best and don’t thrive as well in containers or raised beds.

Pests and Problems:
Birds are known to lift onion sets by pecking at the skins. To avoid this, remove loose skin at the top of the set before planting.

Onions can be prone to a few different diseases:

Onion white rot occurs when the leaves wilt and yellow, or the plant becomes loose in the soil. Throw away any infected bulbs and do not plant onions, leeks or garlic on this land again for eight years.

Onion downy mildew causes gray to green fuzzy patches on the leaves. Remove and destroy any infected leaves immediately to prevent spread.

Leek rust is a fungal disease that causes bright yellow spots on the leaves. Mild attacks are okay, but more severe infections can affect your crop yield. Remove affected plants. Keep conditions moist but not too wet and don’t crowd plants too much. After leek rust, avoid the onion family in that spot for three years.

Maintenance:
When the weather is dry, water onions. Feed occasionally. Mulch can help conserve soil moisture and help prevent weeds from taking over.

Once onion bulbs have swollen, stop watering and feeding and make sure the bulb is exposed to the sun. Remove flower spikes as soon as possible.

Harvesting:
Onion tops will flop over when they are ready, and they will begin to turn yellow. At this point, leave them in the ground for several weeks. Then use a garden fork to harvest onions carefully.

For storage, lay onions in the sun to cure for two to three weeks. If the weather is wet, cure onions in a shed or other enclosed area with good air circulation.

GROWING CABBAGES.

There is a common saying that usually does the rounds which goes like, “ Do you want to be a millionaire?, plant 1 million cabbages and sell them for ksh 10 each.” This statement is certainly premised on the belief that it is easy to grow cabbages. Well those who have grown cabbages before will agree with me if I say that whilst it might be relatively easy to grow cabbages, it is more difficult to grow them well. By this I imply that achieving sufficiently good yields that are financially rewarding as well as the quality standards that are competitive on the market is a toll order for many farmers. The following discussion attempts to assist farmers to negotiate the pitfalls on the way to attaining a good yield of cabbages of unquestionable quality.

1. Climatic Conditions

Cabbages grow well in most areas round where irrigation water is available. They require cooler temperatures such ranging from 18C- 21C which is the reason why cabbages are mostly grown in the cooler months of the year particularly in agro-ecological regions 3,4 and 5 where ambient temperatures tend to be unbearably high during the summer months. On the other hand cabbages can resist ground frost especially overnight freezing though it hampers the growth processes when such conditions become protracted.

2. Soils:

Cabbages require deep well drained soils particularly loams which are pregnant with organic matter. A farmer should ensure that the soils are not too acidic as this is detrimental to the growth of the cabbages. A pH range of between 5.5-6.5 is recommended. A deep ploughing of up to 60cm is recommended as it is famed for promoting good rooting system as well as instrumental in breaking pest and disease cycles. Owing to the fact that nematodes can be a menace in many cabbage fields , soil fumigation is recommended and should be carried out a fortnight prior to transplanting of seedlings.

4. Establishment methods:

Cabbage can be planted either by direct seeding or through establishment of a nursery first from which seedlings are transplanted to the main field. Direct seeding is often practiced under small holdings but on large scale operations seedling transplanting becomes more practical. The latter method is the most popular with farmers in Southern Africa. Seedlings are transplanted from the nursery after hardening and having attained a height of between 7.5cm to 8cm and this height is achieved after 4-6 weeks depending with the seed variety. Seedlings are planted using spacing of 60cm by 60cm and the field should immediately be irrigated after transplanting. I however should point it out at this point that when irrigating cabbages, care should be undertaken to avoid water-logging as this goes a long way in circumventing the occurrence of stem and root rot diseases.

5. Fertiliser requirements:

It is always recommended that one should have their soil tested in order to be able to determine the level of fertilisation needed. Cabbages require a total of 250-300kg/ha of nitrogen. The fertiliser is best applied in the form of a compound fertiliser providing phosphorus, magnesium and potash to the tune of 100kg/ha, 100kg/ha and 200kg/ha respectively just before transplanting. As pointed out earlier the exact amount needed in one’s field is calculable after the soil has been tested.

6. Weed control:

It is important for a farmer ensure that their field is always free of weeds as this ensures that all the fertiliser and water provided benefits the crop entirely. Experts also state that a clean field is less prone to pests and diseases since some of these come into the field via the network of weeds. Mechanical cultivation should be done during land preparation until the plants are about half-grown. The first cultivation should be done 2 to 3 weeks after transplanting. This however is not a rule of thumb as farmers are should weed as frequently as their weed challenge requires.

6. Pests and diseases:

Cabbages are affected by a lot of pests at any point of their growth . The most common examples that easily come to mind are aphids, bollworms, diamond black moths, Bagrada bug, red spider mites, cabbage webworm, cutworms and nematodes. The most troublesome cabbage diseases that growers may encounter are damping- off, clubroot, fusarium wilt, blackleg, downy mildew, blackrot and leafspot to mention but a few.. In order to avoid losses through disease and pests, farmers should routinely spray their cabbages with chemicals. They are also encouraged to use certified seed always or if not possible treat all seed with hot water before planting their nurseries. Treatment of seedbeds with fungicides is also another way of breaking the pest and disease cycles. Weed control has always been implicated as instrumental in assisting the control of pests in cabbages especially if the area is infested with cruciferous weeds. Last but certainly not the least is the fact that farmers should avoid planting cabbages in same field time after time, it is recommended that they practice crop rotations in order to deal with the pest and diseases.

Questions:

1) Please recommend the spraying regime to curb pest & disease infestation
2)Also what are the tradenames for the pesticides on the market,currently?
3) What are the herbicides used in controlling weeds in cabbages?
4) What is the ideal basal fertilizer recommended for cabbages?
5) Please elaborate on ,”100kg,100kg&200kg just before transplanting”

Answers

Pest control use
1.parathion 50 EC
2.Dichlorvos
3 dimeothate
4.monocrotophs
5.metasystox
6.malathion
7.thiodan
8.tamaron
9.dursban
10.karate
11.fenvelarate
12.carbaryl
NB.scout and consider economic threshold levels

Herbicides use
1.lasso
2.fusillade super
3.metolachlor
4.trifluralin

》Basal dressing can be compound B,C,S 1000kgs/ha.
》Top dressing use ammonium nitrate 100kgs/ha 3 to 4 weeks after transplanting (repeat after 3 weeks)

》Manure 25 to 50 t/ha

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Crop husbandry

Manures and fertilizers

To get high yields, tomatoes need to be fertilized. There are two groups of crop nutrients: organic manures and chemical fertilizers.

Organic manures

Farmyard manure, poultry manure and compost are three types of organic manures. They are described in this section.

The most common kinds of farmyard manures are goat, cow and pig manure. Of these three kinds, goat manure has the best balance of nutrients. Cow manure has relatively little phosphate. Pig manure is usually rich in mineral salts but has relatively little potassium. Manure from hen and sheep is also good organic manure.

It is better to use farmyard manure on sandy soils than on clay soils, because it is quite sticky. Sandy soils will not fall apart as easily if manure is added, and will therefore be able to hold more water.

If only farmyard manure is used, 12.5-25 tons/hectare/year (5-10 tons/acre/year) is a reasonable amount to apply. Smaller applications of manure can also be enough if growing conditions are not so good or if chemical fertilizer is also applied.

Poultry manure is usually three to four times as strong as farmyard manure. It is a very

valuable kind of manure as plants can easily absorb the nutrients from it. A good way to apply poultry manure is by first mixing it with an equal amount of crumbly soil or sand. Sprinkle this mixture between rows, and then rake or hoe it lightly. Poultry manure, unlike farmyard manure can be used on clayey soils because it is not too sticky. It is also suitable for acid soils because it contains a lot of calcium (alkaline).

It is advisable to plough dry manure into the ground as fresh manure is too strong and can damage the sprouting plants.

Compost is easy to make from all kinds of organic materials. Examples of materials that can be used are crop residues, kitchen wastes, garden cuttings and manure. Compost is a rich source of macro- and micronutrients. It supplies nutrients at the right time in required quantities.

It is especially useful for improving the soil structure and fertility.It is important to have manure that is well decomposed, and which is not too sticky or too wet. It must not be too dry, as it is difficult to moisten manure again.

Benefits of compost and manure: Improve soil fertility and structure, and decrease the need for phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) application. They provide a variety of nutrients for crops and can be prepared in 2½ – 3 months.

Chemical fertilizer

Chemical fertilizer (except for calcium) does not improve the soil structure but enriches the soil by adding nutrients. Chemical fertilizer is relatively expensive, but in some areas, in terms of nutrients provided, it is less expensive than manure. It does not pay to use a lot of chemical fertilizer in small-scale cultivation, or where prices are fluctuating and yields are low (as a result of diseases, unfavorable weather or poor soils).

Chemical fertilizers can be divided into two groups: compound fertilizers and simple fertilizers.Compound chemical fertilizers

 

This kind of fertiliser is a mixture of nitrogen (N), phosphorus compounds (P2O5) and potash (=K2O). The compound fertiliser 12-24-12 contains 12% N (nitrogen), 24% P

(phosphorus) and 12% K (potassium).

Simple chemical fertilisers

This kind of fertiliser contains only one nutrient. It is used when a crop has a specific deficiency (e.g. sodium nitrate, urea or super phosphate). Tomato especially needs phosphorus after transplanting. It is better to apply nitrogen and potash during the growing stage of the crop.

Use a slow-release type during the rainy season and a fast release type during the dry season.In the tropics the application of chemical fertiliser ranges between 40-120 kg/ha of nitrogen, 30-90kg/ha phosphate and 30-90 kg/ha potash. Never spread chemical fertiliser on young or wet plants because this will cause burns.

How to combine organic and chemical fertilisers

Before planting, the soil is fertilised by applying organic matter. Tomato is usually given a combination of organic and chemical fertilisers. It is not necessary to apply this mixture at one

time. For example, you can apply half when preparing the beds or mixed with the soil in the holes for the seedlings. The remainder can be applied when the plants flower or when the fruit is formed. It is best to rake this into the soil between the rows. A second application, to replenish nutrients in the soil, is especially advisable on sandy soils, where nutrients are leached more quickly. Foliar application of nutrients (i.e. to the leaves) is advisable to improve the yield.

Watering

Tomato is not resistant to drought. Yields decrease considerably after short periods of water deficiency. It is important to water the plants regularly, especially during flowering and fruit formation. The amount of water that is needed depends on the type of soil and on theweather (amount of rain, humidity and temperature).

It is especially important to water regularly (e.g. 3 times a week) on sandy soils. Under good circumstances once a week should be enough.About 20 mm of water per week is needed under cool conditions, about 70 mm during hot and dry periods. Watering plays a major role in attaining uniform maturity and reducing the incidence of blossom end rot, a physiological disorder associated with irregular water supply and the resulting calcium deficiency in the fruit during its enlargement.

 

There are several irrigation methods:

Surface irrigation

The simplest method is to pour water into channels (furrow irrigation) or onto flat fields that are surrounded by small dykes (flood irrigation). Ensure that the water is evenly distributed.

Sprinkler irrigation

Sprinkling using permanent pipes is widely used in greenhouses. Sprinkler heads are placed underneath the crop and in strips so that the pathways are kept dry.

Drip irrigation

Wetted strips

A black PE-film hosepipe that has small holes about 2 millimetres in diameter can be placed on the ground near the base of the plants. The soil needs to be flat or may slope very slightly towards the end of the tube. The lengths of the hose can be as long as 20 to 30 metres.

The water pressure must be about 0.2 atm (2 m).

Watering individual plants

The soil needs to be flat and the water clean because the small droplet openings must not get blocked. Filtering can be done at the place where the water enters.Many drip irrigation systems work on a low water pressure of 0.1-0.2 atm (1 to 2 metres water column). This can be achieved very cheaply for a small system by attaching a WC-float valve at the beginning of the main pipe.

Fertiliser in solution in the correct dosage can be added to the drip irrigation system. As opposed to sprinkling and other types of irrigation, drip irrigation can save 30-70% of your water, especially in a very dry climate.

Pruning

Pruning is important for tomatoes, especially for thick bush and indeterminate types. It improves the light penetration and air circulation. Pruning the side-shoots is called nipping. Pruning the tops of the stem is called heading.The need for pruning depends on the type of plant and the size and quality of the fruit. If plants are not pruned, they will grow at random and fruit will be smaller.

Pruning to shape

As far as pruning is concerned, tomatoes come in two forms, bush and upright. Bush varieties are the best for outdoor cultivation because they require no pruning for most of the season. Remove any yellow or decaying foliage as soon as possible to avoid the spread of disease.

If plants become too large to support themselves, either trim out a few major branches or add more support canes. The side branches can be tied on to the additional support canes.

 

Limit the number of tomato-bearing branches to seven or eight by pinching out any surplus ones. When first fruits begin to form, the plant will produce shoots between the main stem and the leaf stems.

The lower side-shoots should be removed by pinching them out with the fingers. If they are allowed to grow they will produce masses of foliage but few tomatoes. Any shoots that have been overlooked and allowed to grow should also be removed.

Lower leaves that show any sign of yellowing should also be removed to avoid the risk of

infection. When the plant has developed 6-7 branches with tomatoes, stop the plant from growing further by breaking off the growing tip.

If more than seven branches of tomatoes begin to develop, pinch extra branches out to encourage the plant to produce good quality tomatoes rather than an abundance of low-quality late-maturing fruits.

Nipping

It is important to pinch out side-shoots. When plants are nipped, the small side-shoots are removed and only one main stem remains. The fruit clusters grow along this main stem. Nipping enhances quality and size of the fruits.

Heading

The tip of the main stem of the tall type is pinched off when 3 to 5 leaves are fully grown. The shoots that grow out of the top 2 to 4 buds are left to grow. In this way 2 to 4 side-shoots will grow as main stems, supported by sticks.

When these stems are 1 – 1.25 m long, the tops should also be pinched off. New sideshoots should be removed regularly by nipping them. Usually 3 to 4 fruit clusters grow along each stem.

Trimming leaves

Old, yellow or sick leaves should be removed from tomato plants. This controls the development and spread of diseases. Be careful when pruning the plants. It is very easy to spread disease via your hands or any tools that are used, so avoid sick plants. Clean tools regularly.

It is best to prune in the morning on a sunny day so that the wounds can dry quickly. It is advisable to burn or bury the infected leaves to avoid disease infections.

 

Support systems

Staking or trellising tomato plants with bamboo poles, wood stakes, or other sturdy material provides support and keeps the fruit and foliage off the ground. Staking will increase fruit yield and size, reduce fruit rot, and make spraying and harvesting easier.

Indeterminate varieties should be staked to facilitate pruning, pinching, harvesting and other cultivation practices. Determinate varieties should be staked in the wet season to prevent fruit contact with the soil.

Many staking arrangements are possible. Plants should be fixed securely to the stake or string supports, beginning about two weeks after transplanting. Rice straw, plastic strips, horticultural fixing tape or other materials can be used for fixing. Fixing should be done to support fruit clusters.

Tying up

Tomato plants (tall type) can be tied to sticks to support the stems while they are growing.Tie them loosely to the sticks and retie them regularly as they grow. So as not to damage the roots of the plants, support sticks should be put in place before transplanting. The sticks should be three side-shoots at least 1.5 m long, as they will be pushed 40-50 cm into the ground.

Sticks that are to be used again should be washed with a disinfectant beforehand, to kill any germs that might still cling to them.

 

Fencing

It is useful to make fencing of sticks and rope or wire to support tomato plants (tall type) for several reasons:

❖   plant gets better support and this prevents stem from breaking

❖   there is better ventilation, so less chance of spreading diseases, especially in humid areas or seasons

❖   preventing contact between fruits and soil means fruits will not rot

❖   it is possible to plant more plants per hectare

❖   weeding and harvesting is easier

Fencing can also be handy for bush-type tomatoes, to prevent heavy clusters of fruit from touching the ground. Leaves and fruit in contact with the ground rot easily because they are more likely to be damaged by diseases and insects. This can be prevented by placing a fence of two parallel strings on either side of the plant or by placing straw or mulch under the plants.

 

Weed control

Weeds compete with the tomato plants for light, water and nutrients. Sometimes they provide shelter for organisms that cause tomato diseases, such as Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl

Virus (TYLCV), and reduce the yield.

Effective non-chemical weed management begins with deep ploughing, diverse crop rotations and competitive cover crops.

The following integrated practices are useful for controlling weeds effectively:

❖   Remove the previous crop residues and use sanitation practices to avoid introducing weed seeds.

❖   Deep cultivation and exposing soil to sunlight before transplanting help to destroy the weed seeds.

❖   It is important to keep the field weed free for 4-5 weeks after transplanting. It is during this period that weed competition must be suppressed to avoid reduction in yield.

❖   Weeds growing between crop rows are the easiest to control. Shallow ploughing (up to a depth of 15-20 cm) or using mulch usually removes them.

❖   On large acreages, mechanical cultivation is a common method of weed control within and between rows. Shallow cultivation 1-2 inches deep controls weeds and loosens soil that has crusted or become compacted. Loosening the soil helps the absorption of rainwater and supplies oxygen to the soil micro-organisms. In turn, these micro-organisms decompose organic matter and provide nutrients for the tomato crop. Hilling the soil towards the plant row (earthing-up) helps to smother small weeds in the row and tomato plants develop roots further up the stem.

❖   The first cultivation may be done fairly close to newly established plants and later cultivations should be shallower and away from the stems to avoid plant damage and reduced yield.

❖   Hand weeding is an effective method to control weeds growing between plants in a row.

❖   Mulching with plant residues is good for weed suppression, soil moisture retention and slow release of nutrients as they decompose. The plant residues enhance the beneficial insects like predatory beetles. They also increase the population of spiders and earthworms. Commonly used organic mulches are wheat straw, paddy straw, weeds, sorghum and pearl millet straw.

Crop rotation

Where tomato is planted in monoculture, crop rotation is important. Crop rotation means planting different crops on the field each season and only returning the same crop after at least three growing seasons.

This interrupts the life cycle of pathogens and reduces the chance of damage by diseases or pests. Do not rotate tomato with potato, tobacco or eggplant (aubergine) because these plants belong to the same family (Solanaceae) and have the same types of pests and diseases.Some examples of crop rotation with tomato are:

❖   Tomato followed by maize and beans.

❖   Tomato followed by upland or irrigated rice. It is best to plant tomato two weeks

before the second upland rice harvest. Remember to grow two other consecutive crops before planting tomato again on the same field (i.e. once in every 3 cropping seasons, e.g. cereal-legumes-tomato).Tomato can be grown in monoculture or in an intercropping system. Intercropping has advantages because this reduces the incidence of diseases and pests. Smallholders will gain the most from the advantages of mixed cropping.Some examples of intercropping systems:

❖   Tomato intercropped with sugarcane. The dwarf cultivars of tomato are planted on a raised bed about 1.2 m wide, with sugarcane grown in the furrows between the beds.

❖   Tall type tomatoes are grown along stalks covering 0.6 m of the bed Next to the bed, about 0.6 m higher, pepper and cauliflower are grown. The furrows are 0.3 m wide and serve as a path.

❖   Intercropping of tomato with cabbage. Combining these crops will reduce the damage done by the diamond-back moth.

❖   Alternate climbers, such as runner beans and peas, with tomato. Two weeks before tomato is harvested, the beans and peas can be planted in between the tomatoes. The sticks supporting the tomato can be used for the new crop.

Tomato fits well with different cropping systems of cereals, grains and oil seeds. Cropping systems like rice-tomato, rice-maize, okra-potato-tomato are popular in irrigation scheme areas.

Cauliflower-okra-sunflower-cabbage-tomato, maize-tomato-watermelon and rice-peastomato have been proved economical systems. Leafy green vegetables or radish can be grown successfully as tomato intercrops.

In Uganda farmers follow a unique mixed cropping system. Fifteen days before transplanting a tomato crop, marigold (Tagetes erecta and other closely related varieties) is sown along the field border and also along the water channels in the field. This mixed cropping system helps to control the fruit borer in tomato.

 

Crop rotation with cereals and other leguminous crops improves the soil health and reduce the pest infestation. Crop rotation with cereals or millets is effective in controlling the nematode population.

Protected cultivation

People have always protected their crops from unfavourable climatic effects. Shrubs and walls protect against the wind, foliage and slats against harsh sunlight and rain, and glass and plastic against the cold.

Traditionally, glass has been used in greenhouses to let the sunlight in, but the discovery of transparent synthetic film was a major break through. It made the building of a greenhouse much cheaper.

Greenhouses

Before starting a greenhouse project one must carefully check whether all requirements for its success have been met.

 

As far as the climate is concerned, besides protection against fluctuating temperatures, protection is also needed against the sun’s powerful rays (solar radiation), heavy rain, hail and strong wind. Crops often need to be protected against a combination of weather conditions. The climatic data from the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) data base can serve as the basis.

High standards will need to be placed on the type of soil, the soil profile and the location. Thus, if at all possible, choose soil with a good structure in a flat area for your greenhouse project.

In view of the more expensive production equipment and the higher quality of the product, it is important to consider the location of your farm carefully. Greenhouse cultivation needs more attention than outdoor cultivation. Therefore, you need to be within easy reach of your business at all times.

Good infrastructure for transporting materials and products is also of importance, as is the availability of electricity.Finally, you need to know how you can sell the products you want to grow.

Climate control

The climate in the greenhouse is regulated by ventilating, heating and cooling and by using screens. The growth and level of production of plants largely depends on the amount of

sun that the crop gets per day.Inside a greenhouse the light intensity is lower than outside. Screens can be used to prevent too much sunlight entering the greenhouse. A movable screen can be very useful when the weather changes between sunny and cloudy weather. Screens also reduce evaporation somewhat, so that the crop requires less water.

 

The most important climatic information concerns the dry and wet periods and the extremes. If there is too much rain you need to make certain to drain the excess water from the greenhouse roof as well as around the greenhouse. The water from the roof can be collected in a basin for irrigation. Sufficient storage capacity will help to better tide over the dry periods.

Tomato grows best at temperatures between 18 and 23°C. Above this temperature ventilation should take place. The wind-chill factor is also significant to the plant. Low atmospheric humidity and much wind are likely to cause damage earlier.

The humidity of the air, (RH, relative humidity), affects the growth and health of the crops in various ways. A high RH encourages fungal diseases, because condensation can easily occur on the crop in the early morning, creating the ideal conditions for fungal spores to germinate rapidly. The plant itself also becomes less tolerant to sudden dry conditions.

Ventilation can be done by opening a part of the greenhouse cover in the sidewall, the roof or in the front or back entrance.

Water supply and crop husbandry

As no rain may enter a closed greenhouse, it is extremely important that the crops have their own water supply. First of all it is important to know how much water your crop needs and how much water can be supplied by the system you are using.Plants need water mainly for transpiration, but 5-10% is needed for their growth. Plants

transpire to cool themselves and to encourage transport of minerals that the roots have absorbed. The amount of transpiration is determined by sun, temperature, air humidity and wind speed.The methods by which crops in the open field are supplied with water also apply to crops in the greenhouse. Most of the crop husbandry in greenhouses is the same as for open field crops.

Types and constructions

There are several types of constructions and accompanying covering materials. The simplest form of cover is to lay sheets of plastic film on the ground or over a simple support system. The sheet on the ground may create a slightly higher temperature in a seedbed and the moisture will be retained. Ensure that the plastic film cannot blow away. A simple support with stakes from wood or bamboo can be used to fix a plastic film or

vegetable screening material on top of a seedbed.

Low tunnels can be made of hoops of wood, bamboo, plastic flexible tubes or strong wire. The hoops need to be placed at intervals of about 2 or 3 metres and anchored in the ground. After stretching the plastic film (for instance, polythene or PVC) over the hoops, the sides can be weighted down with a layer of soil.

Further anchoring of the tunnel is done by a retaining cord or wire over the plastic film at each support hoop. For ventilation, the plastic film can be lifted up or shifted a little.

 

The plastic film is removed at harvest time and sometimes even earlier if the weather is favourable. Thus, the tunnel protects the crop in bad weather against low temperatures, hail and also from birds and insects.

Low costs and a simple construction method are the most important advantages of low tunnels. The disadvantages are that they only provide a limited temperature gain, opportunities for ventilation are very limited and caring for the plants (husbandry) is difficult.Low tunnels are usually used for only one crop. In most cases plastic film cover on the ground and low tunnels are the first step towards protected cultivation.

Walk-in-tunnels are high enough for people to walk and work in, and can accommodate a taller crop, but a simple walk-in tunnel has its limitations:

❖   In a warm climate, the simple means of ventilation limits the cultivation options.

❖   The use of cheap polythene (PE) film means that the covering will only last for one growing season because it will break down through the solar radiation and friction.

❖   Wooden hoops may break easily, steel hoops become so hot that the plastic stretches and breaks.

❖   Simply anchored plastic is vulnerable to storm damage.

❖   It is difficult to support tall crops properly.

Tunnels with a solid construction have the advantages of climate regulation, more

cultivation options and a longer lifespan. They have enough space for working in them. The

structure consists of galvanised tubing, which could be reinforced with wires in the length. To

protect the plastic, the frame is covered with foam tape. The simplest form of ventilation can be

done by using roll-up the plastic on the side of the tunnel.

More advanced methods of ventilation are available and depend only the finance possible.

 

Shade halls are essential in a dry sunny climate or in the dry season of a monsoon climate

to protect the crop against the blazing sun. Special screening material (woven cloth, netting) is

available, differing in quality and in the degree to which it shuts out the sunlight. Ventilation occurs via the open netting of the cover on the sides

Financial turnover

Whenever growers decide to invest in improvements to their production systems they need to make sure that their income will also grow adequately. Care needs to be taken that the nvestment also means improvement of the market value of the product. The golden rule is ththe greenhouse grower starts on a small scale, gains experience and only then considers expanding the business and investing more.

A detailed guide to growing leafy spinach

Spinach is a nutritious, hardy cool weather crop, grown for use as a cooked green vegetable or as salad. There are two main types of spinach, that is, smooth leaf and savoy (crinkled leaf).

 

Soil fertility

It is always important to test the soil nutrient level before planting as the pH should be maintained at 6.5 to 6.8. Soils with low pH will result in slow growth and chlorotic leaves. Because of sensitivity to magnesium deficiency, older spinach leaves may tend to show yellow colour similar to that caused by nitrogen deficiency or downy mildew. Do not automatically apply more nitrogen to try to develop the desired deep green colour. Spinach will accumulate excess nitrates if nitrogen is used in an attempt to induce green colour and this is dangerous to health.

 

Ecological requirements
Spinach is a cool weather vegetable and can survive the first frost of temperate climates. It germinates and grows optimally at temperatures between 4-16°C. However, it can withstand temperatures as low as -7C. Spinach grows best in a well-draining loamy soil with an optimum pH of between 6.4 and 7. It is sensitive to acidic soil and if the pH is too high. Although it prefers full sun, spinach can still produce significantly in partial shade. In hot weather, seeds germinate slowly or may fail to germinate completely. Heat also causes the plants to bolt (go to seed) quickly, ruining the flavour of the crop.

 

Planting and cultural practices

Propagation of spinach is solely by seeds. It is first raised in a nursery before transplanting into the main field.

Nursery establishment
Prepare the nursery bed, a metre-wide against the required length. Drill seeds across the bed at a depth of about 1cm, cover seeds lightly with soil and the nursery bed with a thin layer of dry grass (mulch). Water the nursery bed and seeds germinate within 5-7 days. Seedlings should be watered regularly.

 

Transplanting

Seedlings are ready for transplanting after 4-5 weeks, when with 3-4 leaves. This, however, depends on the ecological factors in the region, like temperature. Transplanting should be done on a cloudy day or late in the evening when the sun is cool. Note: Wet seedlings an hour before uprooting them from the nursery. This prevents root damages. To prevent transplanting shock, water can be sprayed to the transplants.

 

Procedure

Select a site with full sun to light shade and well-drained soil. Plough the land 2-3 weeks in advance at a depth of at least 20cm and harrow the field. Prepare raised beds, recommended for proper drainage and root establishment depending on the amount of rainfall available.
However, in dry areas like Makueni, you can make a flat or sunken bed because of rain limitation. The beds should be 15cm high, a metre wide and about 100 metres long. Incorporate soil with manure and DAP. Water the beds, unless the soil is wet enough.
Plant the seedlings in the beds. This should be done at the same depth they were previously growing while in the nursery. They should be spaced at 30cm to 45cm between rows and 15cm between the plants. This gives room for the leaves to reach full size.

 

Thinning

When seedlings sprout to about 10 to 12cm, they should be thinned 8cm apart. This helps in reducing competition as well as ensuring sufficient air circulation within the crops.

 

Weeding
Weeds compete with the crop for growth factors like nutrients as well as they harbour pests. They should, therefore, be controlled. Since spinach roots are shallow and easily damaged, care must be taken when weeding.

 

Mulching
This helps to keep the soil moist and to suppress weeds. Decomposed mulch releases nutrients into the soil, which are absorbed by the crop. It also helps prevent soil erosion.

 

Irrigation
Watering should be done regularly because spinach requires high levels of moisture.

 

Nutrition
Spinach requires sufficient nutrients for proper growth and development. It is, therefore, important to ensure that these nutrients are made available and in the needed quantities. For instance; for basal fertilisers like DAP, put a table spoon per hole and mix with soil at transplanting.

For CAN, put a tea spoonful and is banded around the plant as top-dressing at three weeks after transplant. NPK, are also be applied after the third harvesting to generate more leaves.

 

Crop rotation
Spinach should not be planted on the same plot over and over, because this causes pests and diseases to build up in the soil. Rotations should be done with other crops like beans, peas, lettuce, tomatoes and potatoes.

 

Pests and control

Cutworms and wireworms: Cutworms cut off the stems of young seedlings at ground level while wireworms feed on the foliage and roots. Drench soil with PENTAGON 50EC 20ml/20l or PROFILE 440EC 60ml/20l or alternative available in agrovets.

 

Aphids: These are small soft bodied insects found on the underside of leaves and/or stems of plant; usually green or yellow in colour. Infestation causes yellowing and distortion of leaves, formation of necrotic spots and stunted shoots. Aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance (honeydew) which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants. Spray KINGCODE ELITE 50EC 10ml/20l or LEXUS 247SC 8ml/20l or LOYALTY 700WDG 5g/20l or available alternative.

 

Spinach crown mite: These mites live deep in the crown of the spinach plant. Their feeding causes deformation of leaves and small holes form in newly expanding leaves. Damage can be to newly emerged seedlings or to older plants. Spray ALONZE 50EC 5ml/20l or BAZOOKA 18EC 10ml/20L or available alternative.

 

Slugs and snails: They leave relatively large holes in spinach leaves. Slimy trails are evident. Drench soil with PROFILE 440EC 6oml/20l

Leaf miners: These leave meandering tan trails or mines on the leaves as they feed. Heavily infested leaves curl and become distorted. Spray ESCORT 19EC 10ml/20l or any available pesticide recommended by agro vet.

 

Flea beetles: These feed mostly on young foliage and the damage consists of a number of small holes, leaving the leaf looking as though it had been hit by a blast. The leaves sometimes have bleached and pitted areas. Spray LEXUS 247SC 8ml/20l or KINGCODE ELITE 50EC 10ml/20l or PRESENTO 200SP 5g/20l

Cabbage loopers: These caterpillars are pale green with white lines running down either side of their body. Feeding leads to formation of large or small holes on leaves and the damage is often extensive. Spray KINGCODE ELITE 50EC 10ml/20l or BACIGUARD 16WDG or LEXUS 247SC 8ml/20l

 

Armyworms: Feeding causes singular, or closely grouped circular to irregularly shaped holes on foliage. Heavy feeding by young larvae leads to skeletonised leaves, and egg clusters may be present on the leaves, which are covered in a whitish scale giving them a cottony or fuzzy appearance. Spray KINGCODE ELITE 50EC 10ml/20l or LEXUS 247SC 8ml/20l or PENTAGON 50EC 10ml/20l or BACIGUARD 16WDG 15g/20l

 

Diseases
Damping off and root rot: Symptoms consist of poor seed germination, pre-emergence death of seedlings, post-emergence death of newly emerged seedlings, stunted plants, yellowed lower leaves, general poor growth, wilting, and eventual collapse and death of older plants. Roots of the infected plants appear water-soaked or brown to black in colour.

The upper taproot may be girdled by a necrotic lesion, and the tip of the taproot may be necrotic. In severe cases of infection, nearly all roots become girdled or rot off. While all stages of spinach can be infected by root rot organisms, newly emerging plants and young seedlings are very susceptible. Seek advice from agrovet for effective fungicide fungal diseases.

 

Leaf spot: Infection leads to development of small dark spots on the leaves. These enlarge forming brown lesions, which become brittle and eventually crack at the centre. The lesions can also develop on petioles and stems. Spray CHARIOT 500s 20ml/20l or RANSOM 600WP 15g/20l or BRADLEY 500SC 10ml/20l, however you will be advised on best alternative available

 

Downy mildew: Initially dull to bright yellow spots form on cotyledons and leaves of all stages. These spots enlarge and become browning and dry. Close inspection of the underside of the leaf often reveals the purple growth of the fungus. In severe cases of infection, leaves appear curled and distorted and may take on a blighted effect as a result of numerous infection sites.
Remember, every environment has specific challenges that require extra attention.

 

Otieno works in the Department of Crops, Horticulture and soils. Egerton University.

  Seeds of Gold®   

Tomato Production Guide

Tomato, scientifically known as Lycopersicum esculentum Miller is an important and popular vegetable grown in many parts of the world. The fruit is used as an ingredient in many food preparations and is regarded as one of the most profitable crops for off-season production, preferably from May to September.

Recommended Varieties

Tomato varieties are classified according to their growth habit such as indeterminate or determinate type. The indeterminate type develops new stems from axillary bud in the leaf subtending the inflorescence with continued growth of internodal inflorescence every 3rd to 4th leaf with sequential maturity depending on the type variety and management, prolonging the harvesting period.

The determinate type is bushy with an inflorescence limited only to 4-6 leaves and the next buds are developed slowly if not aborted restricting the prolific flowering resulting in shorter production period. The characteristics of tomato varieties recommended for production are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristics of recommended varieties of tomato.

Variety	Days to harvesting (DAT)	Productive period (months)	Yield (t/ha)	Fruit			Type	Planting season	Reaction to pests and diseases
				Color	Size	Shape
Apollo for fresh market	35	2-3	30	Red orange	Medium large	oblong	Determinate	Dry season	TMV-MR bacterial wilt-MR
Magilas for fresh	30	1-2	30	Pink red	large	oblong	Determinate	Dry and wet season	Dumping off-R wilt-R TMV-R
Atlas (F1)	40	2-3	40	Red orange	Medium Large	oblong	Semi determinate	Dry and wet season	Bacterial-R wilt-R TMV-R
Atlas(rafted) (kamlong)	40	2-3	40	Red orange	Medium large	oblong	Semi determinate	Wet season	Bacterial wilt-R TMV-R
Cherry	50	4-5	40	Red orange	Medium	round	Indeterminate	Dry and wet season	Wilt R TMV -MR
TMV – Tomato Mosaic Virus.  MR – Moderately resistant; R – resistant

Site Selection

Choose a part of the farm that is slightly elevated and has good drainage to avoid water logging in case a flash flood occurs during the wet season. For dry season planting, make a catchment with a canal directed into it to drain excess water after each irrigation schedule. Choose a sandy loam or clay loam soil with a pH of 5.5-8.0.

Growing Season

Tomato can be grown anytime of the year. In hilly areas, plant tomato from September to January. For lowlands, plant from November to February. Grow off-season type and grafted tomatoes (kamlong) from May to September for bigger profit.

Land Preparation

With a carabao drawn implement, plow and harrow the area once and twice if the soil is not in good tilt. Then set furrows at a distance of 100 cm before transplanting the indeterminate type or semi-viny. For determinate type with bushy growth habit set at 75 cm distance between furrows.

Crop Establishment

There are two methods of seedling production: the use of seedbed and seedling trays.

1. Seedbed method

* For 1000 m2 tomato production, use one seedbed measuring 1 x 10 m so that seedlings will not be overcrowded, thereby producing seedlings with bigger stems. Cover the seedbed with 3-5 cm thick rice hull and then burn completely to minimize the incidence of pre-emergence damping-off on the seedlings.

* Mix 10 kg compost and 100 g complete fertilizer and incorporate these evenly into the seedbed. Sow the seeds in small shallow furrows at 20-30 g/10 m2. Cover the seeds lightly with fine soil. Dust the surroundings of the seedbed with Sevin SP to control ants, and spray 1 tbsp of Vitigran Blue per gallon of water to avoid infection of damping-off. To ensure uniform germination of the seeds, saturate the seedbed with water for the first three days using sprinkler until the seeds emerge.

* To avoid succulent stem, regulate watering as soon as the seedlings have emerged. For the seedlings to have a good start, apply urea at a rate of 1 tbsp/gal of water at 7-14 days after emergence (DAE). Sprinkle water on the seedlings using a sprinkler (regador) immediately after applying the fertilizer to avoid burning effect on the leaves. Drench the seedbeds with Vitigran Blue at the rate of 1 tbsp/gal of water once damping-off is observed.

* To produce hard seedlings, water the seedbed only when plants show temporary wilting (this can be observed in the morning) and repeat regularly starting at 14 DAE until the seedlings are ready for transplanting, which is at 25-30 DAE. Water the seedbeds thoroughly before pulling the seedlings for transplanting to minimize root damage.

2. Seedling tray method

* Seedling tray method needs only 100 g seeds/ha or 10 g for 1000 m2. Plant the seeds singly in each hole of the tray intended for seedlings with potting medium available at seed stores, or bake garden soil for 2 hours. When cooled, mix the garden soil, fine sand and compost at the ratio of 3:1:1. Drop 2-3 grains of 14-14-14 in each hole before filling with the soil mixture. Care and maintenance of seedlings is the same as in seedbed, but transplanting shock is minimized in tray method.

3. Transplanting

* For wet season planting, use one month old seedlings because these are harder, taller, and can withstand the impact of rain. Transplant seedlings at a spacing of 0.50 m between hills and 1.0 m or 0.75 m on rows or furrow right after irrigation water run in the furrows. For dry season, transplant 25-day-old seedlings.

* To avoid breaking the stem of seedlings during transplanting on irrigated furrows, hold the roots with the thumb and forefinger then push towards the soil at 3-5 cm deep depending on the length of the stem. For an area of 1000 m2, transplant the seedlings on the right side of the furrows for the first half of the area. For the next half, transplant on the left side of the furrows. For easier off-barring, use a carabao-drawn plow.

* For seedlings in trays, transplant each seedling together with the soil medium from the tray using the same planting distance and method of transplanting as in seedbed method. If grafted tomato will be used, transplant the seedlings 3 cm deep to the hole and cover firmly with light soil. Do not cover the grafted part to avoid infection. Support the transplanted seedlings with trellis.

Nutrient Management

Broadcast chicken manure or organic fertilizer before land preparation or at final harrowing to fully incorporate the fertilizer into the soil (Table 2). Apply 14-14-14 at transplanting so that seedlings will be healthy and vigorous before flowering. Delayed application will result in weaker plants and smaller fruits. Side dress using urea mixed with muriate of potash (0-0-60) for higher fruit setting, and to prolong the fruiting period of the crop.

Table 2. Fertilizer requirement for tomato production.

Kind of Fertilizer	Rate of Application per ha 1000m2)		Time of Application	Method of Application
Chicken manure	500 kg (250 g/plant)		before plowing	Basal/broadcast
or			or
Organic fertilizer	250 kg (125 g/plant)		final harrowing	Basal/broadcast
14-14-14	25 kg (125 g/plant)		At transplanting	Basal
Urea+0-0-60	15 kg	15 g/plant	21 days after transplanting (DAT) (at 3rd irrigation)	Side dress
	15 kg
Source: Gajete, T.D. et. al 2004

Water Management

1. Four to five irrigations are needed from transplanting to 14 days before the last harvest depending on the type of soil. Tomato is very sensitive to flooding; hence, irrigation must be done just to moisten the root zone especially during the onset of flowering up to the last harvest.

2. The following irrigation schedule must be followed for a 1000 m2 area:

* First : during transplanting (flooding) or hand watering
* Second : 14 DAT (flooding) or hand watering
* Third : at vegetative stage (21 DAT), water at 1 L/hill.
* Fourth : at flowering and early fruiting (30 DAT) water at 1 L/hill.
* Fifth : optional, depending on the appearance of the plants at harvesting stage (hand water if necessary)

3. Irrigate by furrow (quick passing) to minimize soil erosion and to favor high fruit setting. Waterlogging for 24 hours will favor the occurrence of wilt diseases and reduce fruit setting. In the absence of surface irrigation, water the plants weekly at the rate of 1 L/hill until two weeks before the last harvest.

4. For tomato with plastic mulch, water twice a week for the whole crop duration.

Pest Management

Insect pests and diseases of tomato are managed by using chemical, biological, and remedial measures. Most of the pests and diseases of tomato are common throughout the year except thrips and whiteflies, which are present only during dry season starting in January, declining in May and ending in June or July depending on the arrival of rain. The farmer or any amateur grower may try the suggested biological and remedial measures in managing the insect pests and diseases as presented in Table 3. In case of pest outbreaks, the use of chemical pesticidesas shown in Table 4 is the last resort.

Insect Pests

1. 28-spotted beetle (Epilachna philippinensis) – This is a small beetle with brownish yellow forewings dotted with 28 black spots. Both adults and larvae are destructive by feeding on the leaves of tomato and other solanaceous crops. They feed by scraping the surface of the leaves until it has been skeletonized.

2. Fruit worm (Heliothis armigera.) – The polyphagous larva of this insect feed on corn, tobacco, cotton and other vegetables. In tomato, the larva damages the fruit at any stage of growth rendering it non-marketable.

3. Aphids (Aphis gossypii) – The insect pest attacks tomato, cotton, and other crops by sucking the sap of the leaves and stem of the plant. It can also transmit (vector) cucumber mosaic virus. Severe infestation of aphids results in the accumulation of their sweet and sticky substances on the infested plant parts, which serve as a medium for the growth of black molds that block the photosynthetic activity of the leaves. It is the aphids’ secret toxic substances that result in curling of the shoots and dwarfing of the internodes of tomato. This symptom reduces the plants’ reproductive potentials.

4. White fly (Bemicia tabaci) – This white fly is a serious pest of tomato that attacks the plant by sucking the sap of the leaves. It also acts as a vector of tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) that causes yellowing and curling of tomato leaves resulting in stunted plants with aborted flower and fewer fruits.

5. Thrips (Frankiniella occidentalis) are minute pests that suck the leaves of the tomato. It is a vector of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) that reduces yield.

Diseases

1. Tomato mosaic Virus (TMW) – This virus causes mosaic pattern on the leaves of tomato coupled with curling of the young leaves and shoots. Most of the varieties are tolerant to tomato mosaic virus and are capable of bearing fruits throughout their life span but are not prolific as the healthy plant. The disease is seed-borne.

2. Late blight – is caused by the fungus. Phytophthora infestans (Montagne) de Bary. The symptoms are seen as brown spots on the older leaves with yellowish advancing lesion. Under favorable condition the symptom progress to upper leaves, stems and fruits of the plant.

The advance stage of the disease is seen as a whitish growth on the fruit. The disease can be transmitted by mechanical means while the growth and development of this fungus is favored by a moist and cooler condition of the environment. Under severe infection, the plant may succumb to death.

3. Bacterial wilt – The causal organism is Pseudomonas solanacearum that infects tomato and other solanaceous crops. The pathogen is either soil-borne or seed-borne. It invades the roots of tomato then progresses to the vascular bundle where it interferes with the translocation of nutrients and water. Advanced symptom is browning of the inner parts of the stem, wilting of the plant before it dies.

4. Bacterial spot – is caused by Xanthomonas campestris var. vesicatoria an agent of bacterial spot, which is characterized by a sunken irregular brown spots on the fruits, stems, and leaves of tomato (Fig. 4d). Fruits infected with bacterial spots are considered non-marketable. The disease is common during wet season planting and is transmitted through the seeds. Weeds are some of the alternate hosts of this bacterium, which becomes latent after the cropping period.

5. Root knot nematode – This parasitic nematode (Melodogyne incognita) attacks the roots of tomato that results in the formation of knots and galls on the roots. Infected tomato become susceptible to other root disease. Above ground symptoms shows stunting of the plant with moderate wilting as that of water stress.

6. Fusarium Wilt – the fungus Fusarium oxysporum is the causal agent of the fungal wilt of tomato. The pathogen is soil-borne with the similar symptom with that of bacterial wilt. The only difference is the presence of white mycelia (thread-like) that grow on the infected part of the plant.

7. Early blight Alternaria solani (Ell. and G. Martin) Sor. – This fungus incites the symptom of early blight in tomato. This fungus is prevalent during the cool months of the year, infecting the leaves, stems and aboveground parts of the plant. The symptom appears as target-like spots on the leaves. At fruiting stage, infected fruit shows numerous irregular spots and the disease can cause high yield loss if not immediately controlled

8. Powdery mildew – is caused by the fungus Leveillula taurica (Lev) Arnaud. The symptom is like a white talcum powder on the surface and undersurface of the leaves. The growth and development is favored by warm condition of the environment with low humidity. The profuse powdery growth of the organism covers the surface of the leaves and other parts causing the leaves to become yellowish then turns brown and die.

9. Leaf mold – The causal organism of this disease is Cladosporium fulvum Cooke. It is characterized by brownish spots with molds on the under surface of the leaves and later coalesce into blight. During severe infections, the leaves turn brown and die resulting in reduced flowering and fruiting span of the plant.

10. Blossom end rot – The primary symptom of this physiological disorder is calcium deficiency, which is characterized by dry rot with water-soaked appearance at the blossom end of the immature fruits, It later enlarges and turns into papery or leathery sunken brown to black rot upon infection of saprophytic fungi (secondary symptom). Fruits with end rots are non– marketable.

Table 3. Biological and remedial control of pests and diseases of tomato.

Insect pest and diseases	Suggested management
A.) Insect pest: fruitworms/cutworms	To control worms at fruiting stage, spray neem seed extract at 200-300 ml/16 L or hot pepper fruit extract 100-200 ml/16 L. For cutworm, spray before twilight.
	Spray with Thuricide HP or Dipel (Bacillus thuringiensis) following manufacturers recommended dosage. These are bacterial pesticides
28 spotted beatle, mites, leafhoppers, whitefly/thrips	To drove other pests spray 100-200 ml pure tubai leaf extract/16 L of water on the plants alternate it with spraying karot tuber extract (100-200 ml tuber extract per 16 L water). Do it twice a week.
	Puff smoke on the crop twice a week during the whole growing period.
	For thrips, mites, leafhopper and white fly, practice overhead irrigation.
	For thrips use blue sticky trap, for whitefly use yellow sticky trap.
B) Diseases: Leaf spot	To control these disease spray the leaves with zinc oxide power at 2-3 tbsp/16 L water (with 1 tbsp sticker during wet season). Spray decoction of serpentina 10ml extract per 16 L water.
Fungal wilt/bacterial wilt	Treat the seeds with Centella asiatica (takip kuhol) decoction at 45°C to 50 °C for 2-5 minutes. Uproot infected plants and burn outside the area. Drench infected soil with 5% solution of zonrox then expose to sunlight. Avoid surface irrigation. Do not cultivate or touch infected plants as this will transfer the pathogens to other plants. If possible, hand water the plants early in the morning or late in the afternoon with 1 L/plant every week at vegetative stage and 2 L/plant every two weeks at fruiting stage for clay loam soil.
Bacterial spot	To prevent this disease, spray a decoction of guava, star apple and avocado (done by boiling 1 kg leaves of each in 3 gallons of water for 5 minutes). For stronger concentration, restore 1 gallon decoction to 16 L water with 1 tbsp sticker. Spray on leaves and fruits of tomato once a week.
	Minimal infection if grown after rice. Practice good drainage and use large dose of organic manure.
Powdery mildew	Spray Cassia alata (Andadasi or Acapulco) leaf extract at the rate of 1 L leaf extract/16 L water with sticker then spray vigorously on leaves and whole plants. For severe infection, spray a ratio of 1:1 leaf extract to water twice a week until the fruiting stage. As a disinfectant and as a preventive measure, spray 16 ml zonrox per/6 L of water or 1tbsp baking soda/16 L of water on the whole plant once a week.
Leaf mold	Burn infected plant residues after harvest. Plant tomato after rice and plant other crops after tomato (crop rotation). Plant resistant varieties.
Nematode	Plant 1 month old marigold seedlings as intercrop two weeks before transplanting of tomato. Plant resistant varieties.
Early Blight	Spray Acapulco leaf extract.
Late Blight	Spray Acapulco leaf extract alternate with serpentine decoction.
Blossom rot	Spray the plants with nutrients high in calcium at flowering stage. Or spray the plant with fresh malunggay leaf extract at a ratio of 1:4 malunggay extract to water. Or spray with decoction of seaweeds, decoction of burned sea shells, crabs and shrimps skeletons (1:10 shells to water).
Sources: Colting, L. M., et al, 2003; Farmers’/Gardeners’ Practices

 

Table 4.  Chemical control of insect pests and diseases of tomato.

Insect Pests and Diseases	Suggested Pesticides		Rate Application (tbsp/16 L water)	When and How to Apply
	Common Name	Product Name
A. Insect Pests
Aphids	Methomyl	Lannete 40 SP	4.0-8.0	Spray any of the insecticides as soon as insect infestation is observed. Repeat spraying at 7-10 days interval or depending on level of insect population.
28-spotted beetle	Carbaryl	Sevin 85 S	4.0-6.0
Thrips		Provin 85 WP	4.0-6.0
Fruit worm	Methomyl	Lannate 40 SP	4.0-8.0
	Deltametrin	Decis R	1.5-2.5
	Lambdacyhalothrin	Karate 2.5 EC	1.0-1.5
	Carbaryl	Provin 85 WP	4.0-6.0
Whiteflies	Thiamethoxan	Actara 25 WG	1.5-2.0	Spray as soon as symptoms are observed. Repeat at 7-10 days depending on level of infection.
	Triazophos	Hercules	4.0-6.0
B.Diseases Powdery mildew, Early & late blight/Leaf spot	Chlorathalonil	Daconil 75 WP	4.0-6.0	Spray as soon as symptoms are observed. Repeat at 7-10 days depending on level of infection.
	Mancozeb	Dithane M-45	4.0-6.0
	Metalaxyl	Ridomil MZ 58 WP	6.0-10.0
Bacterial spot Bacterial wilt	Copper oxychloride	Vitigran Blue 35 WP	4.0-6.0	Spray when the first cluster is well formed. Repeat if required. Treat the seeds with 5% lime solution than subject to 50°C for two hours; air dry the seeds before sowing.
Source: Gajete, T.D. et. al 2004

Weeding

By using a carabao-drawn plow or hand hoe, cultivate in between rows of plants by off barring at 14-21 DAT. Hill-up at 28-35 DAT. Spot-weed at the surrounding of the seedlings after each off-barring and hilling-up if there are standing weeds. If plastic mulch is available, mulch the area before transplanting.

Harvest Management

Harvest fruits intended for future use at matured green stage at 1-2 months during rainy season. Matured green fruits gradually ripen in one month at room temperature. Frequent harvesting sustains the production of more fruits. For immediate use, harvest the fruits at breaker pink stage. These will fully ripen within three days at ambient temperature but can be slowed when stored in a refrigerated condition.

References: Production and Management of tomato. July 7, 2008. Open Academy for Philippine Agriculture. http://www.openacademy.ph/.

Tomato Production Guide Technology Option 1

Seedbed Preparation

1. Make seedbed 50 cm apart with any convenient length in an area fully exposed to sunlight
2. Pulverize the soil thoroughly and add compost or dried animal manure at the rate of 5 kg per sq meter.
3. Sterilize the soil by burning rice straw or rice hull on top of the seedbed for 4-5 hours to kill soil-bon pathogens.
4. Drench the seedbed with fungicide-insecticide solution.
5. To protect the seedlings from heavy rains, place plastic roofing.

Sowing

1. Wet the seedbed thoroughly before sowing.
2. Make horizontal rows 5cm apart.
3. Sow 80-100 seeds in every 50 cm row (150-200 g of seeds are needed per hectare).
4. Cover the seeds with a thin layer of soil and place rice straw mulch.
5. Water the seedbed daily (seedlings start to emerge 3-6 days from sowing).

Care of Seedlings

1. 3-5 days fater germination, prick the seedlings by transferring them into a tray or seedbox to allow more space between seedlings and prevent damping-off. In the absence of seedling tray or seedbox, use paper pots (rolled), “lukong” or rolled banana leaves, and plastic bags.
2. Plant the seedlings in a soil mixture consisting of garden soil, compost (or well decomposed animal manure, and rice hull in a 2:3:1 ratio). If possible, sterilize the soil mixture by baking or through steam.
3. Drench the newly pricked seedlings with fungicide solution to prevent damping-off. If insect appears, spray the seedlings with appropriate insecticide.
4. For large scale production, use seedbed. In this case, pricking is not done. Instead, thinning is done to allow more space between seedlings.
5. A week after pricking or thinning, apply starter solution (2 tbsp Ammonium Phosphate (16-20-0) or 14-14-14 dissolved in 1 gal water).
6. A foliar fertilizer may also be used.
7. 1 week before transplanting, harden the seedlings by gradually reducing the amount and frequency of watering until the seedlings experience temporary wilting.

Land Preparation

1. Plow and harrow the soil twice.
2. Make furrows distanced at 0.75-1 meter for determinate and semi-determinate varieties and 1.5 m for indeterminate varieties.
3. Place 500g compost or dried manure per hill if the soil is not fertile.

Transplanting

1. Select healthy seedlings with 3-5 leaves 3-4 weeks after seedling emergence.
2. Transplant 2-3 seedlings per hill spaced 40 cm apart.
3. Transplant in the afternoon.
4. Press the soil gently around the base of the seedlings.
5. Water immediately.
6. Replant missing hills 5-7 days after transplanting.

Trellising

1. Trellising is recommended in growing semi-determinate and indeterminate varieties.
2. Use bamboo or ipil-ipil poles as post.
3. Tie the branches to the post and train the vines using plastic straw.

Nutrient Management

1. 1-2 days before planting, apply 20 g 14-14-14 per hill and mix it thoroughly with the soil.
2. 3-4 weeks after transplanting, mix 2 parts of Urea (46-0-0) with 1 part Muriate of Potash (0-0-60) and apply 1 tbsp (10g) of the mixture 6-8cm away from the base of the plants in bands (first sidedressing).
3. Apply another 1 tbsp of the mixed fertilizer two weeks later (second sidedressing).

Water Management

Depending on the weather and soil, water the plants once a week until early fruiting stage.

Pests Management

Pest

1. Use Trichogramma chilonis or botanical insecticides like native hot pepper.
2. Use insecticide only if necessary.

Diseases

1. If the disease is caused by a fungus, spray with fungicide and remove the damaged leaves.
2. If the disease is caused by a virus and bacteria, pull-out, bury or burn the whole plant immediately to prevent its spread to other healthy plants

Weeding

1. Remove the weeds near the base of the plants before the first sidedressing.
2. Off-bar and hill-up the soil to prevent the weeds.
3. Mulch with rice straw during dry season. For large plantation, mulch with black plastic. Mulching also conserves soil moisture.

Harvest Management

1. Harvest mature green or pink-blushed fruits early in the morning
2. Place the harvest in bamboo crates lined with banana leaves or used newspaper to prevent mechanical damage to the fruits.
3. Avoid over- or under- packing.
4. Remove bruised and damaged fruits.
5. Pack together fruits with similar maturity in one container.

Seed Production

Harvesting

Harvest fruits that have reddish streaks to fully red ripe stage.

Seed Processing

1. Cut fruits in half and squeeze out the seed with the juice into a container. Allow mixture to ferment 1-2 days or easier removal of mucilaginous seed coat.
2. Dip a fine-holed strainer and rub seeds gently into the strainer to remove the coating.
3. Put the seeds in a pail of water to allow immature seeds to float. Discard water together with the floated seeds leaving the good seeds that settled at the bottom of the pail. Repeat the procedure until no floats can be found.
4. Put seeds in a net bag and air dry them for 2-3 days before sun drying for 4-5 days. Increase the sun drying time as the seeds dry. For oven drying, dry seeds initially to no more than 30°C, and increase it to 40°C as the seeds dry.
5. For dry sealed packaging, dry the seeds to 8% moisture content.

Packaging

1. Dry seed absorb moisture from the air. Use moisture resistant packaging materials such as thick polyethylene plastic, aluminum foil, tin cans, or glass jars. Seal well.
2. Seeds can be packed in paper packets but must be placed in large tin cans or wide-mouth glass jars with desiccants (charcoal, silica gel, calcium chloride, quick lime, or wood ash) at the bottom.
3. Cover tightly.

Storage

Keep seeds away from moisture and high temperature. The cooler and drier the area, the longer the life of the seeds.

Proper Handling

Tomato is a perishable crop which deteriorates rapidly if not properly handled. Some tips to preserve the freshness and lengthen the storage life of the fruits are as follows:

1. Harvest fruits at the right stage of maturity. If intended for fresh market and long distance shipment, harvest at the mature-green stage; for processing purposes, harvest at the red-ripe stage.
REASON: Harvesting of immature fruits results in irregularly ripened and poor quality fruits while picking beyond the optimum stage of maturity renders them unsuitable for long-distance shipment.

2. Pick tomatoes during the cooler times of the day, usually at dawn. If it is necessary to harvest up to noon time, keep the harvested fruits in a shaded area soon after picking.
REASON: During this time, temperature is low thus, metabolic processes are slowed down. At noon time, the temperature is high and exposure of the fruits to the sun will increase fruit temperature which hastens weight loss and ripening.

3. Avoid harvesting during rainy days.
REASON: Rain water accumulated on the stems favors growth and development of disease-causing microorganisms.

4. Avoid wounding the fruit when harvesting.
REASON: Injuries incurred during harvesting serve as avenue for entry of microorganisms, hasten water loss and speed up the ripening process.

5. Avoid dropping the fruits into the harvesting containers or when transferring them to the collecting crates.
REASON: Impact bruises on the commodity can result in non-visible symptoms of deterioration manifested internally as brown to black discoloration in the seed area.

6. Avoid over and under packing; allow enough spaces after shaking the containers.
REASON: Over-filled or loosely-packed containers will have a high percentage of injured fruits.

7. Line the crates with newspaper or thin pin-pricked polyethylene bag.
REASON: Liners protect the fruits from mechanical injury while pin-pricked polyethylene bags regulate ripening.

8. Pack only clean, disease-, insect- and injury-free tomatoes.
REASON: Diseased fruits may infect sound ones while injured commodities are readily infected and ripen faster.

9. Have a uniform stage of ripeness within the pack.
REASON: Ripening fruits produce ethylene which causes faster ripening of green ones.

10. Use crates with smooth inner sides.
REASON: Rough inner sides cause bruising of fruits during transport.

11. Arrange containers with enough spaces to allow air circulation during transport.
REASON: Free air circulation will prevent over-heating and will also allow free gas exchange between the commodity and the environment.

12. Be careful when loading and unloading the containers.
REASON: Careless loading and unloading aggravate compression and abrasion damage.

13. Store ripe fruits separately from unripe ones.
REASON: Ripe fruits give off ethylene which hastens the ripening of unripe ones.

14. Delay the ripening of green-mature fruits by keeping them in pin-pricked, (0.05 mm) polyethylene bags for six days at ambient condition.
REASON: The high carbon dioxide and low oxygen inside the polyethylene bag delay ripening.

15. Store green-mature fruits (in small amounts) in moist sawdust.
REASON: The high relative humidity and relatively low temperature attained with sawdust storage minimize weight loss.

References:

Fliers. Tomato. September 2008. Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, Laguna.

Package of Technology of Different Vegetable Crops: Technology Generation and Dissemination for the Growth and Development of Vegetable Industry.2005.DA-RFU 4A& Bureau of Agricultural Research, Diliman Quezon City.

Source: bar.gov.ph®